Pauline theology

Pauline doctrine or Pauline theology are commonly called the views of the Jewish-Hellenistic apostle Paul of Tarsus (around 10 BC - 60 AD) ( ancient Greek Παῦλος Paûlos to Latin paulus "small, low"), the fundamental and trend-setting for all of Christianity . The theology of Paul is in the letters of Paul executed (in particular in the Romans and Galaterbrief ). According to current research, the original letters of Paul are said to have been written between approx. 48 (50) AD and approx. 61 AD. It is important for understanding Pauline theology that God's action in and through Jesus Christ is the basis of Paul’s convictions: God sent Jesus Christ ( Gal 4  EU , Rom 8,3  EU ), God gave him there and raised him to new life ( Rom 4.25  EU , 8.32 EU ).

The Paulinism different from a Pauline theology so far, such as Nestle (1947), that Christianity was founded by Paul Religion, which put in place, the 'Gospel of Jesus a gospel of' Jesus. In the 19th century it was Otto Pfleiderer , with his thesis that continued the approaches of his former teacher Ferdinand Christian Baurs , that it was only Paul who founded 'Christianity' and that this was to be regarded as the climax of Hellenism. The French Reformed theologian Louis Auguste Sabatier (1870) also worked critically on the apostle and Paulinism; further still Karl Holsten (1867) and Henry Holtzman to mention (1872).

classification

The author of Paul's letters was far from being a systematic theologian; rather, his theological thinking and his reflections served certain concrete practical aspects of his missionary activities. His missionary trips were formative and led him through the (eastern) Mediterranean region. The information given by the Apostle Paul in his letters and in the journeys or travel routes described by Luke in the Acts of the Apostles cannot be completely matched.

According to the interpretation and doctrine of some New Testament scholars, Paul wanted to renew the Jewish faith . According to other interpretations, the writer of the Pauline letters linked his doctrine of salvation, which accentuated the narrative of the Jesus movement, with the religion of Judaism in order to give his beliefs a historical anchoring, which had its origin in the creation of the world , in a Greco-Romanic environment To continue writing a cosmic history of salvation for (potential) followers, as was in part also prevalent in the early Gnostic systems and mystery cults of his time.

Krister Stendahl (1977) saw the fulcrum of his mission, his work and his texts, which determined the thinking and acting of the apostle above all else, in the "new" relationship between Jews and Gentiles. Let it be the inclusion of Jews and Gentiles in the plan of YHWH. For Stendahl this was also the center of Pauline theology ( Rom. 9:11  EU ).

"Heide" is more likely to be translated as a follower of multi-religious communities (such as polytheism or mystery cult ) and to be understood as a distinction from the Jewish religion . Hellenistic society and the Roman Empire in the 1st century were decidedly spiritual . The man took one hand, part of a Greek - Roman religion, but then also to own ancient oriental religions and cults such as Cybele , Zoroastrianism in the Parthian Empire , Mithraism , (mystery cults), etc. They were part of "Mediterranean cultural circle" in a broader sense. The early Christian communities were involved in the cultural, spiritual and political debates of their time through their members and the specific socio-economic environment. A new cultural system like early Christianity could only emerge because it was able to network the existing religious and cultural currents and to reassess the prevailing ideas and traditions. The concerns of Paul of Tarsus are to be interpreted in this function.

Nine fragments of stone Gallio inscription , the proconsul in the province of Achaia Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus mentioned. The dates of the inscription indicate that the elder brother of Lucius Annaeus Senecas began his one-year term in office either in early summer 51 to 52 AD or in early summer 52 to 53 AD. At the same time it says in Acts 18,12-17 EU that Paul was accused in Corinth at this time and brought before  the proconsul Gallio. It was concluded that Paul's conversion could have occurred in AD 32 or 33, about two to three years after Jesus' death. From 36 to 41 AD he could have lived again in his hometown of Tarsus, from 42 to 48 AD he was probably in Antioch. In 48 he probably met the Judeo-Christian apostles of the first hour at the Apostles' Convention in Jerusalem . His second mission trip from 48 to 52 led him back to Corinth and Antioch, on his third trip from 52 to 55 AD he reached the provincial capital of Asia Ephesus , went to Macedonia and back to Corinth. Once again he returned to Jerusalem, where he was accused by Jews who were loyal to the Torah and turned over to the Roman procurator Porcius Festus and charged.

Paul and his companions directed their missionary activity in particular to the Jews and Jewish Christianity living in the Hellenistic diaspora , but also to Christians of non-Jewish origin ( Gentile Christians ). With Jewish Christians a scientific language is term recorded for various groups of jesus believing Jews and Christians of Jewish coinage in antiquity. The Hellenistic Judaism of the Diaspora synagogue became independent over time and the results, compared to the Aramaic speaking Palestinian Judaism , which adhered to temple , sacrificial , priestly service and purity laws . For the emigrated Jews, the synagogue took the place of the temple and the interpretation of the Torah took the place of the priest.

At an apostolic council in Jerusalem (around 48), both sides, the apostles of the Jerusalem early community and Paul of Tarsus with his companions, tried to come to an agreement. Luke ( Acts 15.29  LUT ) claims that a minimum of food and purity laws (the " James Clauses ") were recommended to non-Jews , while Paul ( Gal 2.6  LUT ) emphasizes the complete release from the Torah. Ultimately, Paul probably got his way by saying that nothing should be imposed on non-Jewish Christians. The Brit Mila remained a core problem , because the early Christians of Jewish descent encountered in their mission to the Gentiles in enforcing the commandment and prohibition of circumcision due to other cultural traditions of those who were to be proselytized, sometimes with fierce resistance within their (Jewish) religious community.

Paul not only shaped the image of James ( Hebrew יַעֲקֹב Ja'akov ), but also found "his great religious opponent" in him. A view that was mainly represented by Ferdinand Christian Baur and his students from the younger Tübingen school , but which is not undisputed in recent New Testament research.

The environment and the political situation

It was the epoch of the Roman Principate , a ruling structure of the Roman Empire in the early and high Imperial Era (27 BC to 284 AD). An epoch that began with the Treaty of Misenum in the summer of 39 BC. Chr. Began and in the late phase of the Roman civil wars had been closed and the final end of the Roman Republic sealed. It led to the establishment of an absolute monarchy in the form of the principate under the first Roman emperor Augustus ( Caesar of the Roman Empire from 31 BC to 14 AD). Four other emperors were in this position until Paul's death.

Map of the Roman Empire after the Treaty of Misenum ( 39 BC )

Octavian's sphere of influence

Antony 's sphere of influence

Provinces of Lepidus

Sea realm of Sextus Pompey

Italy ( Senate )

Kingdom of Egypt ( Cleopatra )

Vassal states

Parthian Empire

After Herod the Great gave his father 43 BC. As a ruler followed he became a Roman client king in Judea , Galilee , Samaria and neighboring areas. He was already since 47 BC. BC was governor of Galilee. As 40 BC When Antigonus and the Parthians invaded Judea, Herod fled to Rome. There he was appointed king of Jerusalem under the so-called second triumvirate , consisting of Octavian , Marcus Antonius and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus . In the conflict between the triumvirs, Herod decided in good time against his patron Antonius and in favor of Octavian, who later became emperor Augustus. In the year 30 BC He was therefore confirmed as king on Rhodes by Octavian. He also got other areas to his domain. In celebration of 27 BC Great festivals took place in Jerusalem, where Herod had a theater and an amphitheater built. Herod let himself be 23 BC. Establish a royal palace in Jerusalem and the residence "Herodeion" in Judea. From the Roman emperor he got the landscapes of Trachonitis, Batanäa and Auranitis to his dominion. Around 20 BC The splendid renovation and expansion of the second Israelite temple began , which was then named Herodian temple . Two years later, Herod went to Rome for the second time. Herod's last years were marked by varied family strife about the succession. In the year 4 BC Herod died. Since Augustus did not confirm his will, none of his sons got the title of king, but they received the territories intended for them. Even under his reign there were some politically motivated religious conflicts, especially within Judea. After his death, the domestic political situation proved extremely unstable. Publius Quinctilius Varus played a special role . From 7/6 BC Until 5/4 BC Varus was the imperial governor of Syria (legatus Augusti pro praetore provinciae Syriae) , where he commanded one of the strongest army units in the empire with three legions . He replaced Gaius Sentius Saturninus . In Syria, Varus was confronted with the special challenges of the Near Eastern world. He was a judge when Herod charged his son Antipater with attempted parricide. After Herod's death, Varus settled the inheritance dispute between his three sons by sending all three to Rome so that Augustus could personally make the decision. Publius Quinctilius Varus , was forced to use his legions to put down the revolt in Judea. The fierce street fighting within Jerusalem destroyed the colonnade around the Jerusalem temple , which was set on fire by the Romans. The rebellion also took hold of the surrounding area, where a rural population suffering from tax pressure and the unclear rulership was ready in a messianic expectation to take up the eschatological struggle for the kingdom of justice. Only through vigorous military action was the rebellion suppressed within six months, with Varus having 2,000 insurgents crucified .

The territorial changes of the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Augustus (from 31 BC to 14 AD).

After the death of Herod his kingdom from as was Augustus among his sons , Herod Antipas ruler of Galilee and Perea , Herod Archelaus ( Judea and Samaria ) and Philip the Tetrarch as Tetrarch over Gaulanitis ( Golan ), Trachonitis , Batanaea and Panias divided.

In the year 6 AD, the most distinguished Jews and Samaritans accused Herod Archelaus, who, in response to the complaints, summoned him to Rome by an envoy, removed him from his office in a proper court hearing, punished him with the confiscation of his property and then followed suit Exiled Vienna in Gaul. Its ethnarchy was transformed into a Roman province ( Roman Palestine ). The territory of Herod Archelaus came under Roman administration as early as 6 AD after his exile. The Roman procurators were subordinate to the legate of Syria (see lists of the Roman governors in Judea and Syria ). Herod Agrippa I, a grandson of Herod the Great, also took over their territory from 41 AD. After the death of Herod Philip in AD 34, who remained childless, his territory was donated to the Roman administration in Syria , and later, like the territory of Herod Antipas after his exile in AD 39, to Herod Agrippa I.

Outraged by the Roman claims to rule, as shown in the appraisal (provincial census) of the country by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius , Judas the Galileans incited the people to resist the Roman occupying power by publicly declaring that “the appraisal was nothing other than manifest bondage to oneself ”. Together with the Pharisee Sadduk (also: Sadduk) he stirred up the uproar and called - as Josephus Flavius reports - on the people “to protect their freedom. Because now is the best opportunity to get calm, security and also fame. But God will only be ready to help them if they actively put their decisions into practice, and in particular, the more important they are and the more relentlessly they carry them out ”. According to Josephus, such speeches were "received with the greatest applause, and so the daring enterprise soon expanded into the monstrous". The movement of the zealots u. a. Founded by Judas the Galileans and Sadduk in 6 AD was a paramilitary resistance movement of some Jews against the Roman occupation. The Zealots recruited their followers primarily from the impoverished rural population of Galilee , who suffered most from the double pillage by the Roman occupying power and the local landowners and the economic crisis.

The Sanhedrin or High Council was traditionally the supreme Jewish political authority and at the same time the supreme court. The Sanhedrin initially had its seat in Jerusalem . Even during the Roman rule over Judea , the assembly had considerable influence and a certain autonomy, but presumably no longer had the right to decide on life and death. Apart from a few Pharisaic scribes , the members were probably mainly Sadducees , who mostly belonged to the elite segments of the population. The high priest had the presidency , after 191 BC. The Nasi (see also list of Jewish high priests in Herodian times ).

Names of the Roman Emperors	during lifetime	by Apostle Paul
	Beginning	The End
Augustus	January 16, 27 BC Chr.	August 19, AD 14
Tiberius	September 18, 14 AD	March 16, 37 AD
Caligula	March 18, 37 AD	January 24, 41 AD
Claudius	January 24, 41 AD	October 13, 54 AD
Nero	October 13, 54 AD	June 9, 68 AD

Paul and the ancient Jewish influence

→ Main article : New perspective on Paul

background

At the center of the Jewish faith and the Torah is the covenant , ( Hebrew ברית berīt ), with YHWH . Thus the Mosaic faith is not a law but a covenant religion. A Jewish history of faith and religion expressis verbis only became apparent after the destruction of the first, the Temple of Solomon ( Hebrew בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ Bet HaMikdasch ) and the end of the Kingdom of Judah in the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II in 587 BC. Initiated and marked the end of statehood. Only from that time on did a Jewish people and a unified religion emerge . It derived its identity from norms of circumcision , from the sabbath rest and from various dietary laws and a common religious tradition that could be lived everywhere, even in exile. According to Jewish tradition, God wrote the Torah ( Hebrew תורה) revealed to the mosque on Mount Sinai in two forms: on the one hand as a "written Torah " (תּוֹרָה שֶׁבִּכְתָב Torah shahe-bichtaw ), thus in the form of the five books of Moses; on the other hand later from the 2nd century as " oral Torah " (תּוֹרָה שֶׁבְּעַל-פֶּה Torah shah-be'al-pe ), which deals with the interpretation of the written Torah. The oral Torah was passed down orally from one generation of Jewish scholars to the next.

In the multitude of groups and currents, believing Jews shared some basic convictions; So the worship of the “one God” Yahweh ( monotheism ), the recognition of the Torah , as the way of life of God and his law or federal order for Israel, with the rules for cultic-ritual life as well as ethical and social behavior. The ritual behaviors were identity markers , including circumcision , the keeping of the Sabbath , the food regulations and the rules of purity. The temple in Jerusalem was regarded as the religious center, the synagogues were formed as private meeting rooms for reading and interpreting the Torah. Despite the common basic convictions, there was a great variety of theological positions and life practices. 'Judaism' consisted of a multitude of broad and diverse currents and multifaceted shades, which stood as a generic term for different directions and appearances. Its members were in turn recruited from a wide variety of social, geographic and cultural-linguistic backgrounds. Judaism had no binding institution that could have standardized any interpretations of the Torah, prophecies and pretenders of the Messiah. The consent to the Jewish ritual laws, the Torah and the temple cult was the basis of the Jewish self-image. Only the temple cult in Jerusalem was the central institution, while Jewish community life was organized from a living tradition. The high priesthood was not a religious teaching authority; its tasks were to correctly carry out the temple rites and ceremonies and sacrifices.

The Pharisaic movement was supported by artisans , small farmers and the urban-village middle class. Above all craftsmen and merchants belonged to it. Its members turned "against the increasing Hellenization of Jewish life". Therefore, their followers voluntarily and strictly adhered to the rules of purity and other obligations arising from the Torah and its oral interpretation in daily life. According to the Greek New Testament, among those who are called Pharisees or " scribes " there were also beliefs that were present in the majority of the Jewish people. This included belief in the world to come ( Hebrew עוֹלָם הַבָּא) and the resurrection of the dead at the end of days ( Acts 23.6  EU ) to the existence of a world of angels , spirits and demons ( Acts 23.8  EU ) and the free will and thus the responsibility of man, even if everything What happened is embedded in God's providence.

Jesus of Nazareth , Yeshua or Yehoshua ( Hebrew יהושוע) Was involved in a Jewish, ( rural ) cultural environment, especially in Galilee , an environment that corresponded to the social lower class; he was a Jew, lived and died as such under the Roman occupation forces, probably according to Strobel (1960) on 15th  Nisan (7th April) 30 AD, according to other hypotheses 3rd April 33 AD was determined. According to Hyam Maccoby (2007) the historical Jesus was close to the Pharisaic movement or was even part of it.

Jesus and his followers represented a direction of the “inner-Jewish renewal movements” ( Theißen (1977)). which worked especially in Galilee ( Aramaic gālīlā ). Yeshua and his disciples came from a traditionally illiterate culture in which words and deeds of individual people as well as important events were passed on orally. It had a theological connection to the Pharisaic movement on the one hand and to the renewal efforts around John the Baptist ( Hebrew יוחנן המטביל Yokhanan HaMatbil ) (around 5 BC to around 30, but certainly before 36 AD ). While the central concept of Jesus' proclamation is the 'rule of God' (מלכות Malchut ), the Anabaptist requests were determined by the central point of his message of the 'wrath of God'.

The Galilean rural population at the time of Jesus of Nazareth lived in very simple circumstances. People knew the content of sacred texts, but not a 'Bible canon' sensu stricto . For "Rabbi" Yehoshua, the itinerant preacher and his followers, the focus was less on the total of 613 commandments and prohibitions of the Torah , Mitzvot , i.e. cultic purity or the temple cult, but rather on the imminent reign of God or the influence of the reign of God in the present Foreground. Not in the sense of “political rule”, but as an area of ​​influence of divine activity in the relationships between people and ultimately with God. The kingdom of God means a transformation and transformation of the (social) world, so that justice, peace, freedom and love reigned. That was the center of his work , the proclamation of the message of salvation from the kingdom of God . The metaphors of Jesus' traditional parables corresponded to a large extent to this lifeworld. A world of shepherds , fishermen , small craftsmen and farmers . Images from the world of money, exchange and the movement of goods are used less often in imagery, although they can also be proven.

The Roman praefectus Pontius Pilatus had the titulus crucis " INRI " attached to the top of the cross of Christ to indicate the legal basis of his conviction. According to Wengst (2007) it reflected the legal perspective of the Romans. The assumption is that Jesus was executed as a "messianic rebel". Because the Romans did not differentiate a religious claim from a political claim to leadership and therefore understood the title of king as a state crime similar to today's high treason . Jesus confirmed this accusation with his silence during interrogation by Pilate and thus incurred a death sentence that is valid under Roman law .

Judaism and Paul

Luke describes Paul as having the authority of the Sadducee high priest , who dragged captured Christians in chains before the Jerusalem tribunal ( Acts 22.5  EU ). According to Luke, Paul played a decisive role in the persecution of Christians ( Acts 22.4  EU ) and testified to the stoning of the first Christian martyr Stephen ( Acts 7.58 ff.  EU ) according to the regulations . Stephen was the spokesman of the early Jerusalem church, which operated heathen mission, rejected the temple cult and was in conflict with the Sadducee temple priests. In the Lukan Acts of the Apostles it is also claimed that Paul described himself as a Pharisee and son of Pharisees ( Acts 23.6  EU ), which remains controversial by some New Testament scholars. Paul would have his Jewish training according to the teachings of the Pharisees, (too Hebrew פְּרוּשִׁים peruschim 'separated'), these existed during the time of the second Jewish temple ( Gal 1.14  EU ). In contrast to the other orientations in ancient Judaism, the Pharisees not only committed themselves to the Law of Moses written down in the Tanach , but also obeyed the orally handed down "precepts of the ancestors" of the older teachers of the law. As a justification they cited that the regulations given in the Torah remained unclear without explanation. While Rabbi Yeschua probably worked in the Aramaic - Hebrew language area , Sha'ul or Paul was embedded in Pharisaic thinking and formed in the confrontation with the Hellenistic beliefs. Paul showed himself to be a city dweller in his imagery. The Pauline semantics was shaped by the language of the Hellenic polis , told of trade , exchange and debts "sold under sin" ( Rom 7,14  EU ). Paul's God "credits the amount owed" ( Rom 4,4  EU ) and is then "not credited" ( Rom 5,13  EU ). It is often the language of urban commerce.

Rabban Gamaliel the Elder is said to have been a Pharisee teacher in Jerusalem for him, according to the Acts of the Apostles in Luke ( Acts 22.3  EU , Paul himself said nothing about this). Gamaliel was a grandson of Hillel (around 110 BC to around 9 AD) in whose tradition he stood and who was one of the founding fathers of Pharisaic thought. Its “spiritual opponent” was Shammai (around 50 BC to around 30 AD), who interpreted the Torah more strictly in some respects. Nicholas Thomas Wright (2013) sees Paul closer to the views of Rabbi Shammai . Here Hillel or Gamaliel would stand for the position of (mutual) acceptance towards the Gentiles, while the position of the Shammai is that of an actively conducted controversy.

For Paul, before his “Damascus experience”, the followers of that Jewish renewal movement who succeeded the Galilean itinerant preachers were initially nothing more than apostate Jews who led Israel astray away from the true covenant to the one and only true YHWH . Paul remained connected to the Jewish foundations of faith even after the “ Damascus experience”; he found himself called to Jesus, in messianic faith, but by no means “converted”. Paul reported several times in his letters about his calling ( 1 Cor 9.1  EU , 1 Cor 15.8  EU , Gal 1.12–16  EU ). He reported about the appearance of Jesus, but gave no information about the place and time .

Flusser (1985) sees Paul in the vicinity of the members around the Qumran settlement, from whose surroundings the Dead Sea Scrolls (Qumran writings) came.

Aretas IV. Philopatris the King of the Nabataeans , from 9 BC. BC to 40 AD resided in the Nabatean capital Petra . Paul reports that he was persecuted in " Damascus " by the governor of King Aretas there.

“In Damascus, the governor of King Aretas had the city of Damascus guarded in order to arrest me. But through a window I was let down the city wall in a basket and so I escaped him. "

- Paul of Tarsus : 2nd letter of Paul to the Corinthians 11 : 32-33

The exclamation “ maranata ” ( ܡܪܢܐ ܬܐ / מרנא תא “maranâ 'thâ'” or ܡܪܢ ܐܬܐ / מרן אתא “maran 'athâ'” ) was known to Paul, it meant “Our Lord has come” ( maran atha ) or “Ours Lord will come ”or - most likely -“ Our Lord come! ”( Marana tha ). This exclamation “maranata” can be found at the very end of the 1st Corinthian Letter ( 1 Cor 16 : 19–24  EU ) in the context of a forced dispute between Paul and his opponents. “Whoever does not love the Lord is cursed! Maranata! ”But it is also possible that he met the exclamation in the early church in Jerusalem . The salutation “mara” “more (h)” could also have been familiar to him from Qumran , known and used as the designation of a teacher of justice , just “mara” or “moreh ha-zedek”. In any case, Paul used the exclamation “maranata” in the early Christian sense.

To what extent Paul's attitude was rooted in the theological foundations of Judaism and how perfectly he mastered the Hebrew language remains controversial. In the “Damascus experience” described, the divine plan of salvation was determined, which would reconcile the Jews and the Gentiles. It would be an "Israel of all united God-fearing" ( Gal 6,16  EU ) ("proselytes of the gate"), whose members should live and work together like the love of God. For the Dispora Jew Paulus, Jesus stood for the quintessence of all Old Testament promises; he was more moved by his messianic life than by his parables . As the death and resurrection of Jesus moved into the center of the “new Jewish interpretation of the faith”, the validity of the temple cult and the Torah were radically called into question. This also attacked the economic foundation and evoked material fears in those whose economic livelihoods rested on the “temple cult”, the breeding and sale of sacrificial animals, payment for the rites, money exchange, the temple tax, etc., especially on Passover , for Shavuot and the Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles) came the believers to offer animal sacrifices.

According to Theißen and von Gemünden (2016), Paul, who is said to have been rooted in his Jewish faith, resolved the contradiction of the Jewish faith, which came up against two limits, by believing in Jesus Christ. The monotheistic idea of ​​a perfect alignment of human life is not realizable, no human being can align his (social) life entirely to God (YHWH). On the other hand, it would contradict the limitation of faith to a single people (Israel). God wants to be the God of all people. According to the authors, Paul's message aims at the transformation of the whole human being and the opening of Israel to all human beings through faith in Jesus, the Messiah.

Paul and the Hellenistic Influence

→ Main article : Hellenistic Judaism

Tarsus , was the (probable) hometown of Paul, it was not far from the eastern Mediterranean at the foot of the Taurus Mountains , in the central south of today's Turkey. Since 66 BC Tarsus was the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia , due to its geographical location (intersection of traffic routes, such as the Via Maris , Via Tauris ( Cilician Gate ), soil conditions) it was of enormous economic importance.

The Koine (from ancient Greek ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος hē koinè diálektos , "the general dialect") is that language level of the Greek language that was used as a supraregional common language from Hellenism to the Roman Empire , around 300 BC. Chr. To 600 AD, and replaced the Aramaic language . For Paul, too, the koine was probably his mother tongue .

It was a center of the Stoic philosophy that shaped the spiritual life there for more than two hundred years. Stoic thinking can also be demonstrated in Paul's letters. In his second letter to the Corinthians 2 Corinthians 4 : 8–10  EU, written around 56, Paul described his own paradoxical situation in distress and weakness with simultaneous glory and confidence:

“We are cornered from all sides and still find space; we neither know nor in and yet we do not despair; we are rushed but not abandoned; we are struck down and yet not destroyed. Wherever we go, we always carry the suffering of Jesus on our body so that the life of Jesus can also be seen in our body. "

Thus at least an indirect influence by the Stoic philosophy is obvious.

Paul probably had Roman citizenship , Latin civitas Romana of the Roman Empire and grew up in a cultural metropolis of the empire. Paul underwent an intensive religious training characterized by Phariseeism , which he continued in Jerusalem with Rabban Gamaliel the Elder ( Acts 22.3  EU ). Now he lived as an original Diaspora Jew, shaped by the theological , practical and political of Phariseeism, in and from the Torah , at the same time he was part of the Greco-Roman Hellenism, the Koine ("Colonial Greek") ( ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος hē koinè diálektos , "the general dialect") dominated and shaped by the education and the ideas ( meme ) of his time. This may have been a problem for Paul because he had to reproduce Jewish content in the Koine, which remained imprecise for the translated statements. In addition, through his culturation as Galuth, he might have remained alienated from the Hebrew or Aramaic language, which means that he did not master the languages ​​with ultimate perfection.

Here, that was Pharisee or the pharisaical theology, Bornkamm (1979) by no means so construed and exclusive as in the period after the Jewish-Roman War and the subsequent destruction of the Jerusalem Temple 70 n. Chr. So would the Pharisaic theology the pre-war era left open space for ideas and conceptions of the late Jewish apocalyptic , which painted the fall of the corrupt world aeon and awaited the dawn of a new messianic world age. According to Schnelle (2012), the religious and educational history background of Pauline thought can be differentiated as follows:

• the biblical texts of Judaism that were normatively depicted in the Tanach ;
• Influences of Hellenic Diaspora Judaism;
• the popular philosophical traditions of Greco-Roman Hellenism .

In any case, there is much to suggest that the contact with the Hellenistic world should not be underestimated, as for Paul, with his Hellenistic socialization, the missionary activities in the Gentile Christian communities that he accompanied, consolidated and in some cases also founded were successful.

• 

  Paul's first journey, around AD 47

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  Roman provinces under Emperor Caligula , he ruled from 37 to 41 AD.

• 

  Expansion of the Roman Empire during the reign of Claudius AD 41–54.

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  Second trip 49 bis 52 n. Chr.

• 

  Third voyage 52 to 56 AD

Characteristic of the Hellenistic epoch ( history of Hellenism ) were both the growing political importance of a language area ( Koine ), the increased mobility of people, the emergence of larger economic and currency areas and the development of their own “city cultures” and the increased flow of information through them establishing social networks, but also the increase in the pictorial representation of the ruling power in the political and religious-cultic area.

Polytheistic religions did not have an attitude in their religion corresponding to the (primordial) Christian "faith", rather the respective ancient deities were worshiped, although personal power was ascribed to them, there was no Christian creed , but hymns , in which the power and scope of action who was extolled by God. The proper form of worshiping polytheistic gods was cult . Central to the cult was the sacrifice or the sacrifice by a legitimized priest. The polytheistic religions and their cults, festivals and ritual events helped people to overcome collective crisis situations and structured the temporal dimensions of a social year. Synchronized the spatial dimension in the processions etc. by connecting the actors in a religious procession. Participation in the sacrificial rituals served to ensure self-assurance of social identity . Ancient societies turn out to be deeply religious.

Paul and Gnostics

The Gnosis was a religious movement with a complex origin, which at its zenith in the 2nd century AD spread across the entire Mediterranean region. According to Schnelle (2015), early Christianity and Gnosis initially developed largely independently of one another, until they first came into contact in the first quarter of the 1st century. Passager then in the 2nd century there was a partial synthesis between Christianity and Gnostic positions.

The gnosis (from ancient Greek γνῶσις gnō̂sis "knowledge, knowledge") was a broad religious movement of the Hellenistic late antiquity whose origins reached further back into antiquity . In addition to Kurt Rudolph (1975) and Walter Schmithals, there are a number of New Testament scholars who see Paul directly dealing with (proto-) Gnostic positions in his letters. Paul was also shaped by Hellenistic ideas and so the (proto-) Gnostic terminology and world of ideas can be found in his texts. One position of Hengel contradicted this. Rudolph and Schmithals, et al. a. show a number of arguments with Gnostic ideas in Paul's letters, as follows:

• the contrast between psychics and pneumatics ( Gal 3.28  EU ; 1 Cor 12.13  EU );
• the gnostic dualism of "flesh" and "spirit", which here as in Gnosis are regarded as irreconcilable opposites ( Rom 8,5-10  EU ; Rom 13,11-13  EU ; 1 Thes 5,4-6  EU ) ;
• the physical, visible body of Jesus, who was crucified, was not his true, spiritual or resurrection body, but his “servant form” ( Phil 2,7  EU );
• for Paul, too, the world as a fallen creation is ruled by the “masters of this world” ( 1 Cor 2, 6–8  EU );
• hence the unworldly, sexual or anti-marriage attitude ( 1 Cor 7,32–34  EU );
• For Rudolph, gnostic thoughts can be demonstrated in the Pauline conception of the fall of Adam ( fall into sin ), through which humanity was subjected to sinlessness and deathlessness ( Rom. 5.12  EU );
• in the idea that Christ through his work of redemption (see also soteriology in Gnosis ) created a new humanity in the spirit ( 1 Cor 15.21  EU ; 1 Cor 15.44  EU ; 1 Cor 15.49  EU );
• The Pauline concept of preexistence and the thought of the unrecognized descent of the Savior and his ascent to the Father are gnostic ( 2 Cor 8.9  EU ; 1 Cor 2.8  EU ; Phil 2.6–11  EU );
• Gnostically the evaluation of Christ's salvation act as liberation from demonic powers and man's world decay that has ruled since Adam ( 2 Cor 5:16  EU );
• Gnostically the idea of ​​the Christ body of the redeemed, connected with the mysticism of Christ, and the resulting idea of ​​a universalistic salvation community of the Church ( Rom 5.12-14  EU ; 1 Cor 15.22.48  EU ; 1 Cor 12.12-27  EU );
• Finally, gnostically, the emphasis on “knowledge” next to “faith” ( Phil 3: 8–10  EU );
• and the emphasis on “freedom” and “power” of the pneumatic technician ( 1 Cor 9 : 1–23  EU ).

But also the Marcionist notions of a flawed and unjust world that could only have been created by an inferior god, here the creator god of Tanach , the "evil god" ("vengeance god of the right of Talion "), who is responsible for human suffering and misfortune is responsible, finds echoes in Pauline theology. Opposite this unyielding Creator God ( Demiurge ) would be a much higher, merciful God of spirit and love, the “good God of love” (“God of Beatitudes ”), who, out of compassion for suffering people, seeks his divine Son Jesus for redemption low world sent. Therefore Jesus was not a sinful person made of flesh and blood, but only possessed an immaterial body. Key passages of Marcion's “two-gods teaching” can be found in Paul in the letters 2 Cor 4,4  EU and 1 Cor 8,5  6 .

So Paul wrote ( Rom. 8 : 19-21  EU ) that the longing of the (merciful) God, for the “sons of God”, waits for people, who have liberated the divine in themselves, that is, to have them become effective recognize that the earthly creation is subject to death, which is nothingness. With this, the earthly creation can again become the perfect expression of the divine, (heavenly) world.

Paul's letters

→ Main article : Paul's letters

→ Main article : List of New Testament papyri

→ Main article : Paul's missionary journeys

Für Lüdemann (2016) gäbe es ohne den in der Altkirche umstrittenen Marcion kein Neues Testament und ohne ihn keine Paulusbriefe. Denn Markion sammelte als einer der Ersten die Briefe des Apostel Paulus, Paulusbriefsammlung (Απόστολος). So stellte er um das Jahr 150 zehn Paulusbriefe, darunter die sieben authentischen, zu einer Liste in seiner „Markionitische Bibel“ zusammen.

The letters of the Corpus Paulinum were addressed to individual congregations, to individual persons as well as to a group, mostly Jewish Christians. Almost all letters begin with naming the sender and addressee and contain a greeting, followed by the actual content of the letter, the end of the letters varies. Each of Paul's letters pointed to a specific problem in the life of one of the local churches or related to a missionary approach by the leaders. They provide insights into the rituals, commandments, admonitions and formulated statements of faith of the Pauline communities. But the diction of his letters shows him as a city dweller, in contrast to the traditional statements of Jesus of Nazareth. His topoi are linked to Greek rhetoric . Paul was able to speak Greek as well as Hebrew and Aramaic .

Paul mentioned historical events around Jesus of Nazareth , at least in his letters, using only three scenes from his life. The last supper ( 1 Cor 11.23–26  EU ), the crucifixion ( 1 Cor 2.2  EU ) and of great importance for the development of the cult of Christ, the resurrection ( 1 Cor 15.14  EU ).

The key role played by Paul's letters was later taken up in Luther's doctrine of justification , which is based on Paul's letter to the Romans . Pauline teaching is one of the foundations of the entire New Testament of the Bible . A total of 13 epistles of the New Testament (NT) Paul of Tarsus is named as the author. As text sources for the reconstruction of the (literary) biography of Paul, the seven Epistles of Paul, which are considered authentic, are to be considered in the first place: Rom , 1 Cor , 2 Cor , Gal , Phil , 1 Thess , Phlm .

The other Pauline letters are not personal testimonies . Their source value only exists for the interpretation of the history of Paul's impact, as follows: Eph , Col , 2 Thess and the pastoral letters ( 1 Tim , 2 Tim and Tit ). The same applies to the post Pauline entries in the authentic letters. Paul wrote his letters in the Greek language of his time, Hellenistic Greek, also known as Koine . So Paul did not develop a systematic theology, that was not his original request. The core message of "Pauline Theology" could be formulated as follows:

“God sent his Son, who died for the salvation of men, including Gentiles (Gentiles); who was risen and will soon return to finally save the believers. "

For Paulus or Scha'ul, the focus of his vocation was to bring the Jewish message of his religion in the expression of the messianic figure of Jesus Christ into the world of the "Gentiles" and "Jews". Paul claimed that the monotheistic , Jewish God had revealed his son in him so that he could preach him among the (non-) Jews ( Gal 1.16  EU ) ( kerygma ).

author	"Authentic" letters	Abbreviation	time and place
Paul	1. Paul's letter to the Thessalonians	1Thess	~ 50 in Corinth; possibly before 48
Paul	1. Paul's letter to the Corinthians	1 Cor	Spring 54 or 55 in Ephesus
Paul	2. Paul's letter to the Corinthians	2Cor	Fall 55 or 56 in Macedonia
Paul	Epistle of Paul to the Galatians	Gal	~ 55 in Ephesus or Macedonia
Paul	Epistle of Paul to the Romans	Rom	Spring 56 in Corinth
Paul	Epistle of Paul to the Philippians	Phil	~ 60 in Rome; possibly earlier in Ephesus or Caesarea Maritima

Critique of the origin of the Pauline letters and his theology

In the Dutch radical criticism, the theological-scientific analysis reached its climax with the theses of some Dutch theologians , such as Allard Pierson (1878), Willem Christiaan van Manen (1891; 1906) and Gustaaf Adolf van den Bergh van Eysinga (1912) that none of the Paul's letters from the pen of Paul of Tarsus. All were only created in the 1st to 2nd centuries AD. The representatives of these theses formed a small minority in research on the New Testament (NT) since 1878 .

The Dutch radical criticism was based on the so-called "tendency criticism" of the Tübingen School (actually the "Younger Evangelical Tübingen School"); whose most important representative was the Protestant theologian Ferdinand Christian Baur . However, it went beyond the assumptions of the Tübingen school, which had previously only declared four of the 13 Pauline letters to be definitely authentic and thus contradicted the consensus of the time.

The English Deist Edward Evanson (1731–1805) is another, earlier forerunner . As early as 1792, he was the first and for a long time the only author to question the authenticity of some of Paul's letters, including that of the Letter to the Romans, for reasons critical of tendencies . But the English theologian and historian Edwin Johnson also questioned the authenticity of Paul's letters. In his “Antiqua Mater” (1887) they were questioned by him and their emergence brought closer to Marcion and his environment as editors or pseudo-epigraphs , similar to some authors of the Dutch radical criticism, some of whom referred to him. Marcion was apparently the first to systematically create a collection ( compiler ) of Pauline letters ( Corpus Paulinum ).

Similarly, Robert M. Price of the opinion that none of the NT texts that Paul mentioned as an author were authentic, he refers to on the Dutch Radical Criticism. The figure of Paul is legendary ; other forces and persons would have determined the development of the early Church. The Pauline letters often had a Marcionite background and belonged to the 2nd century AD.

Marcion is thus the first theologian who opposed the "holy scriptures of Israel" with a compilation of New Testament scriptures. For Lüdemann (2016) there would be no New Testament and no Pauline letters without Marcion . Marcion sifted through the stock of circulating Christian texts and compiled them into a stock which, as a first biblical canon, contains the ten epistles of Paul as well as a purified Gospel, the so-called Marcionite Gospel. This is probably very close to the Gospel of Luke.

Klinghardt's goal in reconstructing the Marcionite Gospel in 2015 went beyond the actual reconstruction; He tried to solve the synoptic problem through the reconstruction and to find an answer to the question of the direction of processing between the Gospel according to Luke and the reconstructed ' Marcion Gospel '. To this end, he related textual criticism and the history of transmission to one another and developed a comprehensive model of the history of transmission. The reconstruction of the Marcionite Gospel ("Mcn") took on a control and evidence function. The decision in favor of the “Marcion priority” was the basis for all further considerations at Klinghardt.

The thesis of the “Marcion priority” had further consequences. Because if “Mcn” was the most important source of canonical Luke, then the question of the course of the synoptic tradition arose completely new and thus also touches the position of the Pauline letters. Since “Mcn” originated before the Gospel of Luke, and was therefore older and was used and edited by him as his main source, an additional source would be available for the first time for the transmission history of the Synoptic Gospels . It would then be in contrast to the logical source Q, which can only be inferred hypothetically on the basis of a methodical postulate in the horizon of the two-source theory .

Paul and the early church in Jerusalem

→ Main article : Antiochian incident

The majority of its members in the early church in Jerusalem were close to the Tanach or the Torah ; their way of life was based on the Pharisees and the Essenes . The Hellenists, on the other hand, strive to open up the Jewish faith to the originally polytheistic non-Jews; a. the temple cult, the circumcision and purity law. Several non-Jews had chosen the monotheistic faith as proselytes , or more precisely as "proselytes of righteousness". As newcomers, they strove to acquire all the righteousness of the law. Those who did not want to take the step in the final analysis were called those who feared God , or "proselytes of the gate" - newcomers who had stepped up to the gate of Judaism. They adopted the Noahidic commandments .

Paul adopted the belief of the early Jerusalem community that “ Rabbi ” or “Rabbuni” (“my master”) Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah expected in the Jewish tradition ( ancient Greek Χριστός christós “the anointed”) and the savior of mankind.

Although he was familiar with various majestic titles such as Kyrios and Son of God in the early Jerusalem community and which he also cited frequently, he uses the term Son of Man ( Hebrew בן – אדם ben adam ) not. The title of “Son of Man” was at home in the Aramaic language of the Palestinian Jesus tradition. On the other hand, the Greek educated Christian authors, including Paul, mistakenly saw the humanity of Jesus - in contrast to his sonship - emphasized.

Pauline theology, however, allows us to assume with certainty that Paul also knew this expression. He often quoted ( Psalm 8  EU ) in which the Hebrew expression occurs in a generic sense, but interpreted the passage as a reference to the Messiah ( 1 Cor 15.27  EU and Phil 3.21  EU ). Furthermore, he took over the apocalyptic notion of a resurrection to the final judgment in the book of Daniel and compared Christ as the “firstfruits” of the general dead resurrection to the archetype of all mortal people, Adam ( 1 Cor 15.12 ff.  EU ).

He also quoted the early Christian Philippians hymn in the Philippians letter ( Phil 2,5-11  EU ) in full length, in which probably alludes to Daniel's end-time vision of God's transfer of power to the Son of Man, the general raising of the dead and his recognition by all people:

“That is why God also exalted him and gave him the name that is above all names, so that in the name of Jesus all those knees in heaven and on earth and under the earth should bow and every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ who is Kyrios - for the glory of God the Father. "

His missionary trips took him to areas with large numbers of Gentiles . Its aim was to spread the Christian message among these ethnic groups. In contrast to the traditional words of Jesus, Paul did not place the (Jewish) God , the “heavenly Father” (as an allegory or in the language of a metaphor ) at the center of his preaching, but the risen savior and mediator Jesus Christ. He taught that with the devotion of his Son God also accepted the unclean pagan peoples into his covenant , but in contrast to the “people of the first covenant” only by grace . To accept this gift of love, only faith in the crucified and risen Jesus Christ is necessary. The observance of the Jewish Torah is exempt from the believing Gentiles. At the same time, however, they are subordinate to the chosen people of God. In doing so, he laid the foundation for the separation of Gentile Christianity from Judaism .

Main features

Sacrificial narrative, crucifixion and Christ cult

In his letters Paul cared nothing about the historical Jesus of Nazareth , the earthly man Jesus, all the more about Jesus Christ , the Messiah and Son of God sent by the merciful God for the redemption of all people .

Sacrifices are the symbolic gifts of people in ritual events, through which the relationship between man and God or deity should be influenced. Ancient religions and cults have one thing in common, the worship of God (YHWH) or a deity or deities took place through acts of sacrifice. Emerging Christianity ended this practice. The various forms of sacrifice were not only of central importance in the religious practice of ancient Israel. The cult of sacrifice generally enables a certain form of communication between the victim and his god, YHWH. Even Paul, in his developing theology, did not directly question the Jewish sacrificial cult, but overcame it through the death and resurrection of Jesus.

Jaroš (2008) sees a connection between the Jewish understanding of sacrifice and the (proto-) Christological interpretation of sacrifice. After that, the (still) existence of the second Jerusalem temple was necessary for a new interpretation and interpretation of Jesus' death on the cross as an expression of a new covenant between God and man. Because only in the present, in the presence of the Old Testament Jewish sacrificial ritual in the temple, so the thesis of Jaroš, the narrative interpretation of the death of Jesus as a final atonement was possible. An interpretation after the destruction of the temple, beginning on Monday, August 27th, 70 AD by the Roman troops on behalf of the Emperor Titus , would have been accompanied by a loss of the specific high priestly office and would have been part of the past.

For Mack (1995) a distinction must be made between the Christ cult and the Jesus movements . The former focused on the meaning of the death and fate of Jesus, particularly the resurrection. To the extent that the focus was on the death of Jesus Christ, the focus was less on his teachings (see list of parables of Jesus , source of logia Q , Gospel of Thomas ) and on being part of a school within the Jesus movement. Instead, the increasingly complex confrontation with ideas of martyrdom, resurrection and the transformation of Jesus into a divine, spiritual presence began. With Paul, the Christ cult was formed by God or a divine being choosing to incarnate in an ordinary person ( Rom. 3 : 3  EU ), whose God-willed execution in the form of the crucifixion would reconcile the world with God by being with the mortal, the Divine beings accommodating the body at the same time eradicates the sin of people and thus paves the way to the personal redemption of all people.

Two passages in the text are significant for the presentation of the Pauline cult of Christ; they can be found in the letters to the Corinthians ( 1 Cor 15.3–5  EU ) and the Romans ( Rom. 3.24–26  EU and Rom. 4.25  EU ). For this purpose, Paul focuses on four events in the letter to the Corinthians, the death of Jesus, the burial , the resurrection and the apparitions ( 1 Cor 15.3b-5  EU ). The sequence died ( ἀπέθανεν ) - buried ( ἐτάφη ) - resurrected ( ἐγήγερται ) - appeared ( ὤφθη ) denotes the events around these verbs. The tenses but even more the aspect of the verbs used indicate that died ( ἀπέθανεν ) and buried ( ἐτάφη ) are a closed and past occurrence ( aorist with an imperfect aspect ), while resurrected ( ἐγήγερται ) and appeared ( ὤφθη ) in the perfect passively indicate the lasting effect of the event ( ancient Greek inflection ). In the letters 1 Thess 5,9  EU , ( 1 Cor 1,13  EU ), ( 2 Cor 5,14  EU ), ( Rom 5,6.8  EU ) the author of the letters addresses "dying for us" as a soteriological expression, the redemption of all people through Jesus Christ.

Theißen (2007) sees four factors that determine a religion: experience, myth, rite and ethos. In early Christianity, Jesus is recognizable in two variants, on the one hand as a wisdom teacher and traveling preacher and on the other hand in his Easter passion , the crucifixion, death and resurrection. The interpretations of the experiences through narratives and teaching are also polarized in two variants, on the one hand as an earthly story of a wisdom teacher from Galilee. On the other hand, it transcends in the center of an approaching end time. Paul placed the Easter Passion as well as the transcended figure Jesus at the center of his theological world of ideas.

Jesus Christ alone saves believers.

Paul and the resurrection of Christ

The Christian faith became the 'religion of salvation' primarily through the work of Paul, according to which people who fell into sin and death would be saved through the atoning death and the resurrection of Jesus Christ; in Gal 1.12  EU it is proclaimed that Christ has come to redeem all people Rom 14.11  EU .

The Pauline idea turns Jesus into the “image of God” ( 2 Cor 4,4  EU ). In him we see who God is; God himself appears in the figure of Jesus. Jesus is the image of God: as a living human being of flesh and blood, but also as suffering and dying, as crucified. For he is the Son of God, whom the Father raised from the dead.

Belief in the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead is one of the foundations of the Christian faith and is seen by believers in all denominational (Christian) directions as the basis of their Christian community. Overall, Paul mentioned the appearance of the risen Jesus six times in his letters, for example in 1 Cor 9.1  EU , 1 Cor 15.8–11  EU , 2 Cor 4.6  EU , 2 Cor 12.1–4  EU , Gal 1, 11-17  EU , Gal 2.2  EU . Paul turned against the members of the Corinthian church who denied the resurrection and derived the resurrection of Christians from the resurrection of Christ ( 1 Cor 15: 20–23  EU ):

“But now Christ has risen from the dead as the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep. For since death came through a person, the resurrection of the dead also comes through a person. For just as in Adam all die, so in Christ all are preserved. But each in his order: Christ as the first fruits, then those who belong to Christ on his arrival. "

So death will be destroyed as the last enemy through Christ ( 1 Cor 15.26  EU , 1 Cor 15.54f  EU ). The universality of the resurrection is included in Christ's overcoming of death 2 Cor 4:14  EU . Rom 6 : 4-5  EU :

“So we are now buried with him through baptism into death, so that just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, so too may we walk in newness of life. For if we are united with the equality of his death, we will also be so with the (his) resurrection. "

For the religious historian Vinzent (2014) the resurrection is to be seen as a central theme in Paulus, but this did not apply to most early Christian authors in the first two centuries after Christianity, especially to those who had no contact with Pauli's writings. In his analysis it became apparent that where there was a direct connection between a reception of Paul , the resurrection of Jesus also received a clear evaluation. For Vincent it is Marcion who in the middle of the 2nd century AD helped to spread the belief in the resurrection of Jesus in Christianity by collecting ten letters from Paul.

About the resurrection in the new faith, Paul records the distinction between an 'earthly' and a 'supernatural body', with the death of the 'earthly body' the 'supernatural body' ("spiritually new") can rise ( 1 Cor 15, 44  EU ). The baptism is by Paul as a prerequisite and, death and resurrection with Christ '( Rom 6.3  EU understood) and the baptized to be a new creation ( Gal 6.15  EU , 2 Cor 5.17  EU ), they are characterized a new sphere of life, metaphorically incorporated into the “ body of Christ ” ( 1 Cor 12.13  EU ). “I no longer live, but Christ lives in me” ( Gal 2:20  EU ).

According to Luke Timothy Johnson (1997) the Holy Spirit, the way in which Jesus' 'presence of resurrection' is in the world, is according to “the Lord is the Spirit” ( 2 Cor 3:17  EU ). According to Knitter (2009), this 'risen Christ spirit' would now become reality in our bodies. As Paul proclaimed in 1 Corinthians ( 1 Cor 12:27  EU ), we are the body of Christ.

Eucharist with Paul

A kiddush ( Hebrew קידוש kadosch , German 'holy, German literally' sanctification ' ) is the blessing that is given over a cup of wine and with which the Sabbath and the Jewish holidays are introduced. In addition, there is the ritual breaking of bread ( Hebrew ְבִּציַﬠ הֶלֶּחם) as a typical act in connection with the Kiddush blessing and the Seder meal on the Passover festival. The Jewish rite of breaking bread and the blessing that goes with it was probably also practiced by Jesus ( 1 Cor 11:24  EU ; Paul in Acts 27:35  EU ). In Judaism , Israel's departure from Egypt is considered and celebrated in the week-long Passover ( Central Temple Festival in Jerusalem ). In the Babylonian exile (586-539 BC), Passover was again celebrated and set as a family festival. Then after the reconstruction of the Second Temple , i.e. between about 530 BC and 70 AD, the priests slaughtered the pass animals - cattle were also allowed again - the festival pilgrims roasted and then ate them in the temple forecourt ( 2 Chr 30,1–5  EU ; 35,13f EU ; Esr 6,19f  EU ). However, the conversion to the central temple festival was apparently not able to assert itself uninterrupted in Israel: under Roman rule ( Roman Palestine ) only the slaughter at the temple was carried out; the festival pilgrims took their part, fried it and then ate it in their homes with appetizers, wine and singing - a pre-form of the Seder process that was later determined .

In the first letter of Paul of Tarsus to the Corinthians, the events of the last meal of Jesus are taken up, he gives the following version in 1 Cor 11 : 23-26  EU from the Jerusalem community :

“The Lord Jesus took bread on the night he was delivered, gave thanks, broke the bread and said: This is my body for you. Do this in memory of me! Likewise, after the supper he took the cup and said, This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this as often as you drink from it, in memory of me! For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes. "

The 'Lord's Supper' was probably passed on in the early Christian communities and developed into a ritual . The Lord's Supper traditions consistently report that Jesus blessed, broken and distributed bread to the disciples during the meal and handed them a wine goblet ('chalice'), calling the bread “my body” and the wine “my blood”. The different versions of these interpretive words , which in the parlance of the Christian liturgy are also referred to as “ words of institution ”, are:

Bread word

• with Paul: "This is my body for you."

Chalice word

• with Paul: "This cup is the new covenant in my blood."

The most important features are:

• Paul: The supper takes place on “the night he was delivered”; Passover is not mentioned in the sacrament record.
• Paul: Only the word of bread contains a soteriological addition: "... for you [given]", d. H. a statement about the salvation meaning of the death of Jesus. The following explanations mention bread and chalice together several times and thus make it clear that this interpretation also applies to the chalice passed around afterwards.
• Paul speaks of a “new covenant in my blood” and thereby alludes to Jeremiah 31:31 EU . There the new covenant promised for the end times is connected with the forgiveness of sins.
• According to Paul, Jesus commanded after each word of bread and cup: "Do this in memory of me!"
• According to Paul, participating in the “Lord's Supper” means proclaiming the Lord's death until he comes.

The Paulus did not actually speak of blood, but of the chalice, and thus possibly took into account Jewish offense, since Jews were forbidden to enjoy blood (wine-blood symbolism). The closing verse 1 Cor 11:26  EU emphasizes the preaching character of the Lord's Supper. Elsewhere in the letter to the Corinthians he spoke of Christ being sacrificed “as our Passover lamb” ( 1 Cor 5,7  EU ).

The relationship to the Mosaic tradition, the Torah, seems contradictory . There is the idea that 'blood' ( Hebrew דָּם dām ) with 'life' ( Hebrew חַיִּים chayyim ) or 'soul' ( Hebrew נֶפֶשׁ Näfäsch ) equates ( Lev 17.11–14  EU ). The 'blood' was a sacred element, an immediately divine element, because all life was from God. The blood of slaughtered animals was not allowed to be consumed, neither in profane life nor during a religious sacrifice ceremony ( Dtn 12.23  EU ; 1 Sam 14.31f  EU ; Ez 33.25  EU ). The blood of every slaughtered animal had to be returned to the deity. However, was in the mystery cults , as in the example from Thrace originating cult of Dionysus a more typical of early agricultural societies cult of fertility, in which the wine 'the lifeblood blood' was symbolized accepted this equation.

Mosaic monotheism, messianism

The Jewish monotheism is the basis, the foundation of Pauline thought, there was for him just the one, true, subsisting and acting God of Israel. In doing so, he followed the basic Jewish principles in his theology: God is one, he is the creator , YHWH , the finisher of the world. What Jesus Christ is was determined for him by God's action. In addition, Jesus Christ depicts the will to salvation for people in his actions. He delivers from the enslavement of sin and death . God subjected the crucified and dead Jesus of Nazareth to a change of status, so he did not remain in the status of death, but God gave him the status of God equality. Thus the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead becomes the central content of the Pauline formation of meaning ( 1 Cor 15:14  EU ). For Paul, the basic thesis is that Christ died “for me” ( Gal 2:20  EU ). Those who believed in it belong to the group of the redeemed. Turning to Christ had been an ecstatic move in its early stages. After Jesus' death, first women and then men saw the crucified one as the risen one. In a group ecstasy one experienced the mission to forgive sins and baptism, as well as to proclaim the central message of the kingdom of God. Paul also knew ecstatic prayer; it was part of the communities he founded. Theißen (2008) brings the concept of cognitive dissonance management into the discussion. According to which, as an immediate crisis experience of the followers of Jesus, the crucifixion is seen as a refutation of the expectations attached to Jesus. The deepest humiliation by the agencies of the Roman state or the Sanhedrin could only be compensated for by an overbidding increase. By elevating the crucified to godlike status, the dissonance of the execution on the cross was overcome in the group.

This is why Paul also rejects the adoption of Jewish laws ( circumcision, etc.). For man is not redeemed by observing the Jewish laws, but by believing in the saving act of Christ. This does not mean that Paul gives all laws free; instead there is a “law of Christ” for him ( Gal 5  EU ; Rom 13  EU ), which every believer fulfills. However, Paul "loosens the Old Testament from the external observance of the cult law and its legal provisions [and] opens it to the whole world". This brought about an important change in the history of religion: As a Jew, Paul was convinced that he would be saved who fully observes Jewish law. It was no longer the observance of the Jewish religious laws that saved us, but only faith. So you don't have to be Jewish anymore to be saved. From this follows an urgent mandate for Paul: Everyone , including the Gentiles, must be informed of this. Paul wants all people to hear the message that faith in Christ saves them.

With this Paul did not want to dissolve Judaism. His only concern was to save the non-Jews, in the sense of the time the pagans. Paul let the primacy of Judaism continue to exist ( Rom. 9-11  EU ). But the Gentiles have been included in the circle of the saved since the Christ event, provided they accept the faith ( Gal 3–5  EU ). Paul's theological exposition is therefore about a corporate question (who belongs to the circle of the saved?) And not an individual question (what do I have to do to be saved?). Only Luther read Paul - to gain individualistic and asked the question, which the faithful Christian have to do justice - because of the issues of his time and his person.

In a near expectation Paul was convinced that the end times were imminent and unconditional. So God saved those who turn to faith in the saving act of Christ. Because in Jesus Christ God acted for people and with people for their salvation.

Paul and the historical Jesus

With Paul there are only a few statements about the life of the ( historical ) Jesus. According to Gal 4,4  EU , when the time was fulfilled, Jesus was “sent by God” and “born of a woman” ( ancient Greek γυνή gynḗ ). A virgin birth is not mentioned in Paul's letters, and Mary is nowhere named. According to Rom 1,3  EU he is a "descendant of David ". The center of Pauline theology is the statement that Jesus was crucified ( 1 Cor 2.2  EU ), died and risen ( 1 Cor 15.3–5  EU ), that he had a “brother” James ( Gal 1.19  EU ) and the resurrection stands for the central basis of faith ( 1 Cor 15: 14–15  EU ). Thus, in the Pauline teaching, the death of Jesus is described as a “ransom” ( 1 Cor 6.20  EU ), as a “atoning death” ( 1 Cor 15.3  EU ), as a “proxy sacrifice ” ( 2 Cor 5.19  EU ) , seen as “redemption” ( Rom 3.24  EU ), as “liberation” ( Gal 5.1  EU ) as well as “reconciliation” ( Rom 5.10  EU , 2 Cor 5.18–20  EU ).

The author of the letter to the Colossians wrote that in Jesus Christ the whole "fullness of God dwelt in the flesh" ( Col 2,9  EU ) and to the inhabitants of Corinth , who was God in the form of Jesus Christ and who reconciled the world with itself and the believers “did not count their sin against them” ( 2 Cor 5:19  EU ).

For Paul, the ' atonement ' that Jesus Christ made for all people who believe in him, who profess him, was at the center of his theology; through this turn, the redemption ( soteriology ) of their sins was determined for them. It was Paul who anchored this form of the “doctrine of redemption” in Christianity. If one compares the central thought of Paul, the 'Atonement of Jesus', with the contents of possible Jesuan words ( source of logia Q and here after John S. Kloppenborg and Burton L. Mack with the earliest layers Q ¹ ) this way of thinking is, for example in the statements as they were recorded in the Sermon on the Mount recorded by the Evangelists , in the parables of Jesus or in the logia of the Gospel of Thomas , cannot be found.

Paul and the Jesuan understanding of the rule of God

Jesus' talk of the rulership of God or, better in the sense of a dynamic-functional translation, the rulership of YHWH over people, was at the center of his preaching, it is the basis for understanding his work. In doing so, he does not define the rule of God, but rather tried to make the essence of the rule of God understandable in numerous parables. For Paul, however, it was no longer about the kingdom of God, but about Christ.

For Paul ( Rom 14.17  EU ) the kingdom of God ( ancient Greek βασιλεία τού θεού basileia tou theou ) is not eating and drinking, but righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit . With this, the Jesus' kingdom of God moves away for Paul into a supernatural, heavenly kingdom of God ( 1 Thess 4:17  EU ), thus transcending the original idea through the sacrificial death of Jesus. This shows a difference to Mark the evangelist , who is filled with his time and has come near the kingdom of God, seems to be closer to the Jesus' message ( Mk 1.15  EU ).

The main idea of ​​the Pauline view was not the preaching of Jesus, although Paul referred to it in different places ( 1 Cor 7  EU ), but it was Jesus' death and resurrection or resurrection. His central reflection perspective was God's righteousness, which consisted in realizing God's grace in which he overcomes injustice, in the sinner and in his world. Jesus Christ freed man from all powers and threats, from the realm of sin and death. The medium for this was faith ( Rom. 1.16 f.  EU ). The Kingdom of God was in contrast to Paul a subordinate role, which was not marginal ( Acts 19.8  EU and Acts 28  EU ). Further passages of the βασιλεία τού θεού , the rulership, the kingdom of God, are by no means so rare in the real and the Deutero-Pauline letters (real letters Rom 14.17  EU , 1 Cor 4.20  EU ; 1 Cor 6.9.10  EU ; 1 Cor 15,24.50  EU ; Gal 5,21  EU ; 1 Thess 2,12  EU ; Deutero-Pauline letters Eph 5,5  EU ; Col 1,13  EU ; Col 4,11  EU ; 2 Thess 1,5  EU ; 2 Tim 4,1.18  EU ). Already in his oldest letter, which he sent from Athens to Salonika in 50 AD, Paul exhorts the believers whom God "calls into his kingdom and glory" ( 1 Thess 2:12  EU ).

Man in the world, corporeality

Paul's image of man is determined by the contrast between spirit, ( πνεύμων pneumōn ) and flesh, ( σάρξ sárx ), this contrast leads to an important differentiation between body ( σῶμα sṓma ) and the flesh, between sṓma and sárx . The spirit, pneumōn, can dwell in the body, it can raise it up ( Rom 8.10  EU ) or penetrate it intensely, so that the body can ultimately become a spiritual body, a sṓma pneumatikón ( 1 Cor 15.44  EU ). The body was thus connoted more positively than the flesh. The flesh became an active opponent of God ( Rom. 8,5–8  EU ). The terms sṓma and sárx characterize the human dynamic, the body refers to the visible form of the human being and correlates with the spirit, which can penetrate it as a whole ( 1 Cor 7:34  EU ). The flesh refers to the material substance from which the human being is created and correlates with the blood ( ancient Greek αἷμα haima ) of the human being ( 1 Cor 15.50  EU ).

For Paul, the “body” is present in the most varied of contexts in his letters, referring to the “body” ( ancient Greek σῶμα sṓma ) or its “body parts” ( μέλη mélē ) in a concrete, objective sense as well as in a metaphorical sense Speech.

For Paul the human being is determined in his corporeality ( σῶμα sṓma ); so is the physical constitution of man ( Rom 12.1  EU ). He does not determine the body in the sense of the Greek dichotomy ( body-soul problem ), but sees the soul and the body as equivalent. As a body , man exists in the world and is therefore part of this world. And so man bears his own responsibility for this world. For Christians there is the obligation to “glorify God in your body.” ( 1 Cor 6:20  EU ) and Paul can say that Christians can offer their bodies as “a living, holy, pleasing offering” ( Rom 12.1  EU ) To offer to God.

In his corporeality the human being is a mortal and limited being ( Rom. 6,12  EU ) and in this body he should be raised ( Rom 8,11  EU ). That is the consummation of the body that needs God's intervention. What people can hope for is the new body, a body that is no longer mortal, but a glorified, eternal, spiritual body ( Phil 3:21  EU ; 1 Cor 15:44  EU ).

The earthly body, which is determined in its carnality ( σάρξ sárx "flesh", "soft parts"), is thus mortal. The heavenly body from the spirit ( πνεύμων Pneumon "spirit," "breath", "breathing") will thus be an incorruptible, immortal body ( Rom 1.3-4  EU ); ( 1 Cor 15: 53-54  EU ). According to Paul, man exists in this life as in the life to come in one corporeality. But this body is only once shaped by a non-permanent, perishable principle, the other time by a permanent principle.

For Paul, the term σάρξ sárx stands generally for creatureliness (for example from Christ in Rom 1,3  EU ; Rom 9,5  EU ; from Apostle 2 Cor 4,11  EU ; or in general from man Gal 2,20  EU ), means but in particular man's sinfulness. We live in the flesh, but not according to the flesh, under the conditions of our creature nature, but not succumbing to sin.

The physicality of man, sin and his justification by God

In the Mosaic tradition, " sin " was the breaking of divine laws. The laws were the commandments of the Torah and other regulations that were written down in the Tanakh . According to the Jewish understanding, everyone commits sins in the course of his life. God compensates for the appropriate punishment through grace. Prayer, sincere repentance and conversion ( Jonah 3: 5–10  EU ), ( Dan 4: 27  EU ) and the giving of alms are central elements of atonement.

Paul broadened the concept of "sin"; for the problem is not sinning in the sense of guilt, of culpable transgression of divine laws, but submission to a power remote from God: for all who are determined by the flesh seek what corresponds to the flesh, all those who are determined by the spirit are according to what corresponds to the spirit. The pursuit of the flesh leads to death, but the pursuit of the spirit leads to life and peace. With this the meaning of human existence is understood to live in union with God. An existence in a god-distant state, a rebellion against God or being indifferent to him, is the disaster situation. So sin is set within such a framework as the unauthorized striving of man to secure his own salvation, in absentia dei .

Man would always find himself in an area of ​​sin and death and would be entangled in a disaster situation that he did not cause. To be human would be to be exposed to the power of sin. Since all people are sinners, sinfulness breaks all social barriers. Sin is a fundamental, human offense ( Rom. 3,23  EU , Rom 5,12  EU , 1 Cor 15,17  EU ). Sin and death were also conditioned, because sin came into the world through one person and death through sin, therefore death got through to all people because they had all sinned ( Rom 5:12  EU ). Paul expressed in ( Rom 3:23  EU ) that man through sin, which came into the world through the singular event of Adam and brought death to the following people ( Rom 1.32  EU ). As a result, man as a species can by nature no longer live without sin. Because his relationship with God has been destroyed by sin, man would no longer be able to accept God's holy nature and to reflect or depict it in himself. But although the wages of sin is death, the gift of God would be eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord ( Rom 6:23  EU ).

"All have sinned (...)." ( Rom 3:23  EU ) Paul did not take any collective guilt as a basis, in which a personal share would exist. Rather, he brought the idea of ​​salvation through Jesus Christ to the fore. He placed the human responsibility for his own 'bad' thinking, feeling and acting, by which his life is determined, in the focus. For that he needed forgiveness and redemption through Jesus Christ.

In Rom 5:12  EU , Paul drafted an anthropological assumption in which the whole of humanity and thus also the individual human being, here exemplarily the 'first human being', Adam ( Hebrew אָדָם ādām simply “man”), with the second Adam, Jesus Christ, who stands for the new humanity. Just as mankind was delivered to death because of the sin of the 'first man', it is saved from this death because of the redeeming act of the 'second man': “Sin came into the world through one human being, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people because ( eph 'hô ) all sinned. [...] if the many fell victim to death through the transgression of the one, then the grace of God and the gift that was brought about through the act of grace of the one man Jesus Christ have been abundantly bestowed on the many "( Rom. 5 , 12–17  EU )

The human conflict would now consist in the fact that as long as it is in the world, it is inevitably in the flesh, but should not live according to this flesh ( 2 Cor 10.3  EU ). A conflict that would become even more acute, since according to Paul there are forces and strivings in the flesh, the fleshly corporeality, which dissuade man from God, induce him to sin, and allow himself to be opposed to God's instruction. Paul wrote, "When we were still in the flesh, the passions of sin ... worked in our members, so that we bore fruit for death." ( Rom. 7.5  EU ) And further "Do not worry about the flesh that you do not." falls to desires. ”( Rom. 13,14  EU ). Also, “Do not abuse freedom as a pretext for the flesh” ( Gal 5,13  EU ) A person who lives only in his flesh and who is addicted to the flesh describes the hopelessness of the human situation before God. Thus Paul wrote in “Those who are in the flesh cannot please God” ( Rom . 8: 8  EU ). Sin is the power that rules people and makes use of the flesh ( Rom. 5, 12  EU ).

Paul usually puts the term sin in the singular , while in the Gospel according to Mark and the Gospel according to Luke in their Gospels often speak of sins, i.e. in the plural . Paul spoke, so not so much about the sin of man, so about his actions, he is also here above all about the fact that man succumb to sin or that he is at the mercy of it. Sin as a personified power of evil that, like a person, can be said to have acted actively, which generally and universally rules:

• Sin came into the world ( Rom 5.12  EU ),
• made himself a slave ( Rom 5,21  EU ; 6,6.12.17.20 EU ),
• killed man ( Rom 7,9.11  EU ),
• paid death as wages ( Rom 6,23  EU )
• and even dwelt in man ( Rom 7,17.20  EU ).

What is decided, however, is that this rule of sin has been overcome and life has been won for all ( Rom 5.12  EU ) ff. The man Jesus proclaimed the rule of God or the kingdom of God through his words and actions ( Hebrew מלכות malchut , ancient Greek Βασιλεία τοῦ Θεοῦ Basileia tou theou ), he lived in constant communion with God (YHWH). Through his actions in Jesus, the gap can be bridged that separates (sinful) people from God. For Paul, people remain in God's mercy, because where sin increased, God's grace became too great ( Rom. 5:20  EU ).

Paul and the Holy Spirit

The Holy Spirit (to the Hebrew Ruach HaQodesh ( Hebrew רוח הקודש ruach ha-kodesh , actually “the power (= spirit of the holy)”)) is God's working power in all Christians, in creation and in the world. God's Spirit comes right into our hearts. Christians are the new temples of God ( 1 Cor 3:16  EU ). It is expressed in the extraordinary gifts that baptized Christians have and the miracles they perform. It is given in baptism. Given in water and in the Holy Spirit, baptism unites Christians with Christ and inserts them into his body, the church (cf. 1 Cor 12:13 and Gal 3:27). The gifts of the Holy Ghost are not exclusively related to baptism, and their work is not limited to the baptized and the Church.

Paul viewed the Holy Spirit in two ways, on the one hand the 'life in the Spirit' ( Rom 8  EU , Gal 5  EU ) and on the other hand the 'gifts of the Spirit'. There are several different lists of the gifts of the Holy Spirit in Paul , namely in Rom 12.6–8  EU , 1 Cor 12.8–10  EU , 12.28–31 EU . According to 1 Cor 12.8–10  EU , the gifts of the Holy Spirit are given so that they can benefit others or all ( 1 Cor 12.7  EU ):

• Communication of wisdom
• Mediation of knowledge
• Power of faith
• heal diseases
• Miraculous powers
• Prophetic speaking
• Discrimination of spirits
• Tongues and its interpretation

For Paul, the pneuma as the essence of the spirit is antithetical to the essence of the ancient Greek letter γράμμα grámma , German for 'the written' ( Rom 7,6  EU and 2 Cor 3,6  EU ).

The apostle Paul writes in his letter to the Galatians about the relationship between the flesh and the Spirit and its consequences:

“ ¹⁶ That is why I say: let the Spirit guide you, and you will not fulfill the desires of the flesh. ¹⁷  For the desire of the flesh is against the spirit, but the desire of the Spirit is against the flesh; both face each other as enemies so that you are unable to do what you want. ¹⁸  But if you let the Spirit guide you, you are not under the law.
¹⁹  The works of the flesh are clearly recognizable: fornication, immorality, dissolute life, ²⁰  idolatry, sorcery, enmities, quarrels, jealousy, irascibility, selfishness, divisions, parties, ²¹  envy and resentment, drinking and eating and the like. I repeat what I told you before: whoever does such a thing will not inherit the kingdom of God.
^{22 But}  the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, ²³  meekness and self-control; the law does not contradict any of this. ²⁴  All who belong to Christ Jesus crucified the flesh and with it their passions and desires. ²⁵  If we live by the Spirit, then we want to follow the Spirit too. ²⁶  We don't want to brag, argue or hold grudges against each other. "

- Paul : Galatians 5 : 16–26

So the following nine gifts are listed:

	Greek	Latin Vulgate ( text )	Translation Luther ( text )	Standard translation ( text )
1	agápe	caritas	love
2	chará	fun	joy
3	eiréne	pax	peace
4th	makrothymía	longanimitas	patience	Long-suffering
5	chrestótes	bonitas	friendliness
6th	agathosýne	benignitas	quality
7th	pístis	fides	loyalty
8th	praýtes	modestia	gentleness
9	enkráteia	continentia	chastity	Self-control

The 'Holy Spirit' appears symbolically in Paul as:

• Water ( 1 cor 12.13  EU , 1 cor 10.4  EU )
• Fire ( 1 Thess 5.19  EU )
• Power ( 1 Cor 4.7  EU )
• Finger ( 2 Kor 3,3  EU )

Glossolalia in Paul

“Speaking in tongues”, “speaking in tongues” or “ prayer in tongues”, ie glossolalia ( ancient Greek γλῶσσα glõssa “tongue, language” and λαλέω laléo “speaking”) means incomprehensible speaking, especially in prayer. According to the New Testament , it is a gift of grace from the Holy Spirit ( charisma ). In 1 Cor 12  EU , Paul named speaking in tongues as one of many possible gifts of the Holy Spirit:

“There are various gifts of grace, but only one spirit. ... But everyone is given the revelation of the Spirit so that it can benefit others. One is given by the spirit the gift of communicating wisdom, the other through the same spirit the gift of imparting knowledge, the third in the same spirit power of faith, another - always in the one spirit - the gift of healing diseases, another Miraculous powers, for another prophetic speech, for another the ability to distinguish spirits, for another different kinds of tongues, for another finally the gift of interpreting them. " (12: 4-11 EU )

In 13.1–13 EU , however, all these gifts are subordinated to love as the greatest gift. A speaker in tongues speaks for God, a prophet for people 14.3.28 EU .

But in 14.1–19 EU, Paul relativized speaking in tongues and subordinated it to the other gifts, especially understandable language:

“But also strive for the gifts of the Spirit, especially for prophetic speech! For whoever speaks in tongues does not speak to men but to God; nobody understands him. ... He who speaks in tongues edifies himself; but whoever speaks prophetically builds up the church. I wish you all spoke in tongues, but much more, you spoke prophetically. The prophet is superior to the one who speaks in tongues, unless the latter interprets what he has said; then he too builds up the church. What use is it to you, brothers, if I come and speak to you in tongues, but bring you no revelation, no knowledge, no prophecy, no teaching? ... Since you are striving for gifts from the Spirit, make an effort that you contribute above all to building up the church. Therefore, one who speaks in tongues should pray that he can interpret it. Because if I only pray in tongues, my spirit does pray, but my mind remains sterile. ... I thank God that I speak in tongues more than all of you. But before the congregation, I would rather speak five words intelligently, in order to instruct others, than stammer ten thousand words in tongues. "

If a message is passed on in a community in (incomprehensible) languages, it should then be explained in understandable language. The passage has been understood to mean that the practice of speaking in tongues is accepted, but at the same time a warning is given against abuses; The lower rank compared to prophetic speech and love was also emphasized .

The image of man in Paul

The holistic view of man in Paul
"Heart" ( καρδίᾱ kardíā )
is the center of the individual Place of darkness and sin ( Rom 1.21  EU , Rom 2.5  EU ) but also a place of enlightenment ( 2 Cor 4,6  EU ), love ( Rom 5,5  EU ), faith ( Rom 10,9  EU )
Reason ( νοῦς nous ) and conscience ( συνείδησις syneidesis , German 'Miterscheinung, Mitbild, Mitwissen' )	Soul ( ψυχή psychē )
are the understanding and (morally) judging subject ( Rom 7,23  EU , 12,2 EU )	is the general life force and the living subject ( 1 Cor 15.45  EU )
Spirit ( πνεύμων Pneumon , German , spirit, breath, blow ' )	Body ( σῶμα sṓma , German 'body' )
is anthropologically the human spirit as a self-confident subject ( 1 Cor 2.11  EU )	the person who is passive and transient is understood negatively as the body of sin and death ( Rom 6,6  EU , Rom 8,13  EU ) understood positively as a redeemed body ethically understood as the body of action ( Rom 12.1  EU ) ecclesiologically as the body of Christ ( 1 Cor 12.12  EU ) eschatologically as the resurrection body ( 1 Cor 13.37-44  EU )
Paul's dualistic (transformative) image of man
Spirit ( πνεύμων Pneumon )	Meat ( σάρξ sárx , German 'meat, soft parts' )
is theological and transpersonal the Spirit of God who is given as continuous equipment ( 1 Cor 12.1  EU ) and seizes as a situational irrational force ( 1 Cor 14.1  EU )
Image of the heavenly man ( 1 Cor 15.49  EU )	Image of the earthly man ( 1 Cor 15.49  EU )
The inner man ( ἔσω ἄνθρωπος esō anthrōpos )	The outer man ( ἔξω ἄνθρωπος exō anthrōpos )
The human being who is divided by sin ( Rom 7,22  EU ) and by suffering and impermanence ( 2 Cor 4,16  EU )

after Gerd Theißen

Man in salvation, God's grace

For Paul, God is to be understood neither in terms of the law of Tanach nor in terms of his creative act, but exclusively through his revelations in Jesus Christ. In Rom 1,16  EU with the use of is word stem " δίκαιο- dikaio- " and its link to ancient Greek δίκαιος dikaios "fair", δικαιοσύνη dikaiosyne "justice", δικαιόω dikaioο "justify" δικαίωμα dikaioma "legal statutes" δικαίωσις dikaiōsis " Justification ”, δικαιοκρισία dikaiokrisia “ just judgment ”.

Paul spoke of “justification”, as it were, as a comprehensive acceptance of man by God for the first time in a few passages in the letters of Paul which, because of their content (“you are clean washed”) and their form (once-now scheme), can be addressed as baptismal traditions , so in the first letter to the Corinthians ( 1 Cor 6.11  EU ; 1 Cor 1.30  EU ); but also in Romans ( Rom 3.25  EU ; Rom 6.3  EU ). Here justification, washing up and thereby sanctification were understood as gifts to the baptized person. At the same time they described the effect of baptism, so baptism was presented as "being buried" and "new life". In his view, it is a reproduction of the burial and resurrection of Jesus.

In the letter to the Romans ( Rom 3:24  EU ), Paul followed the idea of ​​the forgiveness of the sins that had previously been committed and also looked at the individual past mistakes of the baptized person. Paul now broadened the line of sight from the individual faults and spoke of a fundamental liberation or even of a death from sin ( Rom Röm, 6  2 ; 6.7 EU ; 6.10–11 EU ; 8.2–3 EU ) so that the previous absolute arrest in sin ( Gal 3:22  EU ; Rom 3,9  EU ) would be overcome.

Man cannot speak himself righteously before God ( Rom. 3.20  EU ). For, according to Paul, sin came “through one man sin came into the world and through sin death came, and in this way death came to all men, because all sin (…)” ( Rom 5:12  EU ).

Ultimately, there is only one justification for God's redeeming action, because only God can speak righteously by grace ( Rom. 3:24  EU ). Without having deserved it, they become righteous, thanks to his grace, through the redemption in Christ Jesus ( Rom 5  EU ). The justification is done by faith alone ( Rom 3.28  EU ). The doctrine of justification asks what must happen so that the relationship between man and God , which has been burdened by sins of man, can come back to normal.

Because we are convinced that man is justified through faith, regardless of works of the law ( Gal 2.16  EU ). But because we have recognized that man is righteous not through works of the law, but through faith in Jesus Christ, we too have come to believe in Christ Jesus, so that we may be justified through faith in Christ, and not through Works of law; for no one is righteous by works of the law.

Because of God's saving initiative, people are “(...) righteous as gifts through his grace by virtue of the redemption that happened in Christ Jesus” ( Rom 3:24  EU ). The grace of God alone is the reason for man's redemption . Therefore everyone disregards this grace of God who believed that he could be justified by the works of the law ( Gal 2.21  EU ), yes, he would thereby already fall out of this grace ( Gal 5.4  EU ). Accordingly, grace denotes an ongoing event that repeatedly gave man his righteousness before God. The goal of divine action is the ultimate victory of grace. In his Adam-Christ parallel, this perspective emerges very clearly. Paul wrote, “But it is different with transgression than with the gift of grace. For if the many died through the transgression of the one (Adam), how much more did God's grace and gift be bestowed upon the many in abundance through the grace of the one man Jesus Christ ... As sin has ruled to death, so should grace also rule through righteousness to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord ”( Rom . 5: 15-21  EU ). The power of grace was accordingly established by God in Jesus Christ and it is therefore from now on the factor of hope in human history.

In the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, Paul saw the reason for the possibility of new life, that Christ had freed people from all powers and threats, from the realm of sin and death, and led them to action that corresponds to love ( 1 Cor 13  EU ) . Christ freed believers from the burden of the past, from the law, from the standards of others, from egoism.

Predestination with Paul

Man encounters God as one called, chosen or rejected. God is characterized by an unquestionable freedom towards people. In Rom. 8.30  EU , the people he has called are predetermined, they have been made just and those he has just made, he has also glorified. In Rom. 9.11  EU he represented a ' double destination ', as it were. God is free in his actions, he calls and rejects whom YHWH wants ( 2 Cor 2.15  EU ). As a calling, God confronts man, so being human is being called and spoken to by God; for Paul it is the central predicate of God ( 1 Thes 2,12  EU , 1 Thess 5,24  EU , Gal 1,6  EU , Gal 5 , 8  EU ). The human being can only experience his salvation as a recipient and recipient. Nevertheless, God's universal will to salvation is revealed through Jesus Christ in the Gospel ( Rom 11:32  EU ).

Faith as a gift from God

According to Paul, the only condition for God's act of grace is faith. Paul insists that man be justified by faith alone, not by works of the law. The gospel

• "(...) there is a power of God to save everyone who believes" ( Rom 1.16  EU );
• “God speaks righteously for the Jews by faith and the Gentiles by faith” ( Rom. 3:30  EU );
• “Everyone who believes in (Christ) comes to righteousness” ( Rom 10.4  EU or Rom 9.30–32  EU ; Gal 2.16  EU ; Phil 3.9  EU ).

Faith is thus the center of Pauline theology or the question of justification from faith. The phrase “man becomes righteous by faith, not by the works of the law” (cf. Gal 2 : 15–21  EU ) is known. Paul wants to express that it is not the Jewish law that represents the way to salvation, but faith. He exemplifies this with the example of Abraham ( Gal 3 : 6-14  EU ), who is praised by God in the Old Testament as an example of a righteous man, whereas Jewish law is introduced later to protect against the power of sin. For Paul Abraham is the example that one is righteous before God, even without the Jewish law. But with the sending of Christ the power of sin fell; Christ is the fulfillment of the promise of salvation to Abraham. The law never has and never had a salvific function, but only a protective function.

Faith, the condition for gaining salvation, is not a human achievement, because it is only made possible by God. Faith, too, is already a gift from God. “Light should shine out of darkness. He gave a bright glow in our hearts so that we could be enlightened to recognize the divine splendor on the face of Christ ”( 2 Cor 4,6  EU ).

Through this action of God, the believer becomes a new creation ( 2 Cor 5:17  EU ).

Paul the revelation and the transformation

For Paul, who wrote an essential part of the New Testament through his letters , the origin of his preaching was that he received it as revelation :

"Paul"

- Letter to the Galatians 1.12  LUT

Template: Quote : double information1=Text=

In this, Paul said that he had received the gospel he had preached through a revelation from Jesus Christ: He therefore excluded all human ( interactive ) mediation, even if it was not the result of his own deliberations. His gospel was a pure gift of grace that was only ever announced or revealed through Jesus Christ in His whole fullness.

Paul also knows mystical revelations of an ecstatic, visionary kind ( 2 Cor 12 : 1, 7  EU ), which, however, did not claim the same value for him. Other divine revelations besides the Christ event - also explicitly the Torah (see Gal 3 : 15–29  EU ) - have the meaning of a preparation for him.

With the revelation that happened to Paul there is a motive for transformation, because he emphasizes that he has received a divine message and is preaching it. Of course, “flesh and blood will not inherit the kingdom of God” ( 1 Cor 15.50  EU ).

Between earthly and eternal life is definitely death . Eternal life is new creation, but not annihilation, but transformation of the body: from a “psychic” to a “pneumatic” (where the “psyche” is the breath of life ( ruach , pneuma )) that God breathed into Adam. Paul makes it clear that the earthly body does not correspond to the heavenly resurrection body. So he basically stated that there is no persistence of flesh and blood. After the resurrection, the body will in no way consist of flesh and blood, because flesh and blood are fundamentally afflicted with impermanence and cannot become imperishable. Immortality, however, is a characteristic of the heavenly body.

Paul and Baptism

The predominant meaning of baptism in early Christianity was that of a total break in a person's life. Paul interpreted this as dying and resurrecting with Christ ( Rom 6,3  EU ) and the baptized understood themselves as a new creation ( Gal 6,15  EU , 2 Cor 5,17  EU ), they were thereby a new sphere of life, metaphorically the “ body Christ ”( 1 Cor 12,13  EU ).

According to Vincent (2014), baptism does not appear to replace Berit Mila ( Hebrew ברית מילה 'Covenant of Circumcision' ) as a sign of God's (new) covenant, because baptism played no role in the discussion about circumcision ( Gal 5,6  EU , 3,25–27 EU ).

The use of water for ritual ablutions or special rites of passage was not unique to Judaism ( Hebrew Tevila immersion in itself טבילה, compare also Hebrew Mikveh מִקְוֶה), but also widely documented in the rest of the ancient world. The Jewish sect of the Essenes, for example, regularly performed ritual ablutions in the Dead Sea in order to free themselves from their sins and to prepare for the impending overthrow , but they did not understand these ablutions as baptism ( ancient Greek βαπτίζω baptizo, “to immerse, to submerge, to be buried in the water “, But it is also used for ritual washing without immersion). John the Baptist was religiously and politically close to them. For him, baptism was an expression of radical conversion to God and the washing away of sins. The differences between the purification ritual, the purely Jewish believers ( Tevila ) and the developing Christian baptism could be seen in the latter in the baptism carried out only once, as well as in the public confession of Jesus. In addition, the former lacked a person to perform the baptism. Hartman (1997) and other theologians saw the origin of Judeo-Christian baptism in John the Baptist , ( Hebrew יוחנן המטביל Yokhanan HaMatbil ).

Paul himself was, according to Acts of Luke , of Ananias ( Acts 9.10 to 19  EU ) His baptism. Although Paul did not see his primary missionary task in baptizing ( 1 Cor 1.15-17  EU , 1 Cor 12.13  EU as well as Gal 3.27-28  EU ), the Pauline congregations understood with baptism the ritual integration of the believer into the "new Jewish faith in Christ". But it also expressed the overcoming of social barriers between free and slaves , Jews and non-Jews , men and women . In Galatians letter ( Gal 3  EU ) he emphasized this rite especially against the Jewish circumcision practice and thus made baptism, comparable to the Lord's Supper ( 1 Cor 11 : 17-34  EU ), a central form of expression of an egalitarian community. Baptism not only marks the individual past of the individual believers, but also testifies to participation in the death and resurrection of Jesus . He places baptism in an image or metaphor of the withering away of the old (sinful) life ( Rom. 6 : 1-2  EU ). In this way the baptized become new creatures ( 2 Cor 5:17  EU and Gal 6:15  EU ), as they are included in a new sphere of life, namely in the body of Christ ( 1 Cor 12:13  EU ). Baptism symbolizes "death" in "immersion" and a "resurrection", or a "resurrection from the grave" in the sense of "reappearing" from the water. The act of baptism ( magically ) causes death and rebirth (immersion and emergence in water as symbolic death and resurrection in Christ). To be submerged in the water of baptism would be the symbolic death of the old, guilty person and the emergence as the resurrection of the new, believing person, who was freed from his guilt through Jesus Christ.

Baptism thus became the basis for Judeo-Christian life in the present. Through baptism, the life and death of Jesus become a life-determining turning point for believers.

Sexuality and relationships based on partnership

In a cultic-religious context, besides food and the type of food, human sexuality are the most heavily regulated areas of life in human communities. Both action complexes are indispensable foundations of a biological as well as social (survival) life of individuals and collectives.

In his Epistle to the Corinthian Church, he attempted to answer questions put to him by various members of the Peloponnesian Church. In it he revealed his relationship to sexuality ( 1 Cor 7.1  EU ), more precisely that between man and woman. In a misogynical answer he wrote that as far as the question is concerned, what you wrote me about, it is good for a person not to touch a woman.

In addition, Paul rejected sexual permissiveness and prostitution that he encountered in rich Corinth as "fornication". Intercourse with a prostitute pollutes one's own body, which as the temple of God is of the highest value beyond death and therefore in need of protection ( 1 Cor 6:13  EU ). In doing so, he is directed against those who refer to Greek ideals and think that “everything is allowed to me”, and counteracts that “but not everything is useful”. Fornication could not be assigned a special position. Like marriage, the godly unity of man and woman, also unite extramarital sexual intercourse into one body and thus defile the body of Christ ( 1 Cor 6:16  EU ). Paul emphasizes the value of marriage as a created entity that is part of the body of Christ. Both partners have the common body and are therefore dependent on each other ( 1 Cor 7,4  EU ), whereby the man is the head of the woman, just like Christ is the head of the man ( 1 Cor 11,3  EU ). In a marital relationship, the partners should not withdraw physically, i.e. sexually, from each other for a longer period of time ( 1 Cor 7.5  EU ) in order not to be exposed to the influences of Satan .

He does not reject marriages with unbelievers because the “unholy” partner can be saved by the believing partner ( 1 Cor 7 : 12-14  EU ). Paul rejects divorces on the basis of Jesus' prohibition of divorce, unless the initiative comes from the non-Christian partner (so-called Pauline privilege , 1 Cor 7.15  EU ). Maintaining the unity of marriage is Paul's top priority. If the divorce has taken place, however, a reconciliation should be reached or the woman should remain celibate ( 1 Cor 7.10 f.  EU ). Whoever cannot completely abstain from sexuality like the unmarried, perhaps widowed Paul, should enter into marriage in order to turn away from fornication ( 1 Cor 7  : 2 EU ). Singleness is a talent that is not possible for everyone. Whoever possesses this talent, however, has to seize the chance and not be deterred by resistance ( 1 Cor 7,7 ff.  EU ), as was the case in Paul's time against unmarried women. This also applies to the widows who do not have to comply with the obligation to remarry. However, marriage could also be a talent.

Human body as the temple of God

Paul wrote, "Or do you not know that your body ( σῶμα sṓma 'body', 'body') is the temple of the Holy Spirit who dwells in you, whom you have from God, and that you are not yourselves?" : “Praise God with your body.” ( 1 Cor 6 : 19-20  EU ). This temple deserves all the attention because “If anyone corrupts the temple of God, God will corrupt him; for the temple of God is holy, and such are you ”( 1 Cor 3:17  EU ). For Paul - he uses a cultic language - the human body is a temple , more precisely a temple of the Holy Spirit , ( ancient Greek Ἅγιο Πνεῦμα ). God created him and all human beings are little temples.

Views on women

Paul looked at the external prerequisites for prayer in Corinthians ( 1 Cor 11 : 3  EU ) and also described the social role and position of women in the church. So every man who wears a head covering while praying or speaking prophetically dishonors his head. For women, on the other hand, covering their heads is a defense against dishonor, because whoever (as a woman) prays or speaks prophetically with his head uncovered, dishonors his head and is therefore on the same level as being shorn (covering in the ancient Mediterranean region ). In the same letter ( 1 Cor 11,10  EU ), however, it goes on to say that women should wear a sign of power on their heads “for the angels' sake”.

Furthermore, Paul saw women only as a reflection of the man ( 1 Cor 11.7  EU ), and women should also submit to the man ( 1 Cor 14.34  EU ). He also wrote ( 1 Cor 7,1  EU ) that a man should not touch a woman ( 1 Cor 7.1  EU ) and should ideally not marry ( 1 Cor 7,7  EU ), conjugal intercourse is nothing more than greedy fervor ( 1 Thess 4,5  EU ).

Views of the authorities

In his letter to the Romans , written around AD 56 , Paul also devoted himself to the topic of “Position on State Power” in a total of seven sections. Addressed to the Christian communities in Rome and that were in particular the Christian house communities in the capital of the empire ( Röm 1,7  EU ). In these paragraphs ( Rom. 13 : 1-7  EU ) he points out that the duties imposed on the Roman authorities, i.e. the representatives of the Roman Empire , must be fulfilled by every Christian. He had to subordinate himself to the system of order and rule. When Paul wrote in his letter to the Romans about the relationship between Christian parishioners and the Roman state, it was Nero who, as the Roman emperor, represented the authorities who, according to Paul, were ordered by God. A view that stood in stark contrast to some of his contemporary Roman intellectuals, such as Publius Cornelius Tacitus : " Looting, murdering , robbing they call rule by a false name, and where they create wasteland they speak of peace." (Aufferre trucidare rapere falsis nominibus imperium, atque ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant.) Or Lucius Annaeus Seneca in his 95th letter after Nero's atrocities: "Atrocities are perpetrated by the Senate and referendum, and the state orders what is forbidden to the individual (...)"

Although there was said to have been an expulsion of Jews from Rome under Claudius as early as AD 49 , which now also included Jewish Christians ( Claudius Edict ), the administrative measures were prompted by current events and only of limited time and duration local effect. Even if the Christians were organizationally separated from the synagogues, there were certainly close ties between Jews and Jewish Christians.

Views on Ancient Slavery

Slavery in the ancient Eastern Mediterranean cultures ( slavery in ancient Greece and slavery in the Roman Empire ) has some peculiarities. Paul made no distinction between the free and the slaves with regard to baptism ( Gal 3 : 26–28  EU ), but on the other hand he called the slaves to obedience to their owners ( 1 Cor 7 : 21–23  EU , Col 3,22– 24  EU ). This suggests that early Christianity did not question the social order and mode of production as such.

In the letter to Philemon , it comprises a total of only 25 verses and was probably written in Ephesus around AD 56 , the subject of the runaway slave Onesimus is treated. Paul learned in Ephesus know and sent Onesimus with this letter to his faithful jesus owner Philemon to Kolossai back. The Philemon letter is addressed to a single person, Philemon, so this letter initially has private features. At the same time, due to the large number of addressees contained therein, Paul pointed out that it was not just a private matter, but something that concerned a whole community. Paul now addressed the letter not only to Philemon, but also to Aphia and Archippus and to the church in the house of Philemon. In addition to Paul, Timothy was also named as the sender, and at the end of the letter greetings were sent to Epaphras , Mark, Aristarchus , Demas and Luke. Paul created a public with it, d. H. enabled a public debate. Paul urged his fellow believer and colleague Philemon to welcome his runaway slave Onesimus again in a friendly manner and to see in him from now on the beloved brother, since Onesimus placed his hope in Christ.

Pauline notions of violence against the 'godless'

In Romans 1.18  EU , a prophetic judgment speech against people from the world of nations, Paul wrote a ' pamphlet ' in the sense of a religious ethnocentrism and exclusion that the wrath of God would be revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and injustice of men, who held down the truth through injustice. For let it be revealed to them what one can know about God; God revealed it to them. In this, Paul clearly distinguished himself from groups and their beliefs and morals . The members of such ancient cult communities are generalized by Paul, as characterized in Rom 1: 29-32  EU . So let them be full of injustice, wickedness, greed and malice, full of envy, murder, quarrel, cunning and deceit, they slandered and pursued defamation, they hated God, were arrogant, haughty and boastful, inventive in evil and disobedient to their parents, they are incomprehensible and unfounded, without love and mercy. Paul sees excessive punishments and threats of punishment as God given, punishments that approve of violence , Rom. 3,5  EU , 1 Cor 6,2-3  EU , 1 Cor 10,5-11  EU , are legitimate, because he who does not love the Lord be cursed 1 Cor 16:22  EU .

Paul and the "Principle of Evil"

As can be seen from the letters after Paul, the existence of hidden, but nevertheless tangible and influencing powers in people's lives was out of the question for him. For him they were a natural reality that could appear in the form of both good and bad violence. He used different names for the evil forces . Mostly he spoke in a personalized way of "Satan" ( σατανᾶς satanãs ) Satan has its origins in Jewish monotheism and contains ancient Persian religious influences, especially Zoroastrianism .

Paul also called "Satan" a "messenger of Satan" (so in Rom 16.20  EU , 1 Cor 5.5  EU , 1 Cor 7.5  EU, 2 Cor 2.11  EU , 2 Cor 11.14  EU , 2 Cor 12 , 7  EU , 1 Thess 2.18  EU ). But also formulations like the "God of this eon " ( 2 Cor 4,4  EU ), "the ruler of this world" ( 1 Cor 2,6.8  EU ), the "tempter" ( 1 Thess 3,5  EU ), " Beliar " ( 2 Cor 6.15  EU ), “Verderber” ( 1 Cor 10.10  EU ) can be found in the texts.

"God of this world" ( 2 Cor 4,4  EU 1 Cor 2,6  EU ) or "God of this world time or eons" ( 2 Cor 4,3.4  EU ) are designations that refer to the Marcionite division between a demiurge or "evil god "And a" good God of love "or a Gnostic idea remind or correlate. So this world time is under the rule of Satan, while the “coming world time” is identical with the kingdom of God .

In 1 Cor 11:14  EU Paul uses the metaphor of darkness and light for good and bad, so he wrote that Satan himself took the form of an angel of light. One goal of Satan towards the believers is to prevent the servants of God in their ways ( 1 Thess 2:18  EU ) or, as the “God of this world time” , to prevent the pagan adepts from accepting the Gospel ( 2 Cor 4,3.4  EU ).

In the 2nd Corinthians the author of the letter wrote, on the one hand, of an angel of Satan, which presupposes the general assumption that Satan, according to Paul, had his own angels, so-called demons. In particular, Paul was then given a thorn in his flesh by an angel of Satan, in order to counteract an alleged arrogance - so that he would not arrogate himself - to hit him with his fists ( 2 Cor 12 : 7-9  EU ). This leads to the assumption that on the one hand Satan had his own angels, on the other hand, that Paul had character traits that were associated with a certain arrogance, because otherwise God would not have had to treat him like that. The angel of Satan is undoubtedly a demon who was given permission by God to hit Paul with his fists in certain situations. So God is doing this to slow Paul down, but also to protect him and teach a lesson.

Paul and the concept of angels

Angel to ancient Greek ἄγγελος ángelos " messenger ", " emissary ". is a designation for heavenly beings or spirit beings , which, however, according to Paul, would not be entitled to worship, rather all believers would judge the angels ( 1 Cor 6 : 3  EU ). For him angels were nevertheless among the heavenly powers that could be experienced ( 1 Cor 13  EU , 1 Thess 4.16  EU , Gal 1.8  EU ). In the Colossians the author, probably a student of Paul, warned against a cultic veneration of angels ( Col 2.18  EU )

Paul as the founder of 'Christianity'

While religious studies examines the Pauline writings from an external perspective, in theology, from an internal perspective, an internal perspective, the text of his letters is seen as a category of experience and a point of reference for an encounter with the Pauline Jesus Christ and God.

Nestle (1947) saw the Pauline endeavors, a religion he founded, which replaced the `` Gospel of Jesus '' with a `` Gospel of Jesus '' in that he made the `` Atonement '' that Jesus Christ made for all people in need of salvation - the believed in him who professed to believe in him - placed themselves at the center of his 'theology' and interpretations. In this way he was able to establish a 'Christianity' oriented towards salvation. It was Paul who anchored this form of the “doctrine of redemption” in “Christianity” and made it authoritative for the further course of Christian exegesis in the old church . For Wrede (1904) Paul was the second founder of 'Christianity' and thereby covered up the person of Jesus.

Besides , none of the forty Jesus parables is found in any of the Pauline epistles. Although he used individual images to express his idea of ​​a Christian faith, 1 Cor 1.20  EU , 2 Cor 1.22  EU , 2 Cor 5.5  EU , 1 Cor 3.10–17  EU stood for him the 'sinful man' at the beginning of his teaching, because everyone is under sin ( Rom 3,9  EU , Gal 3,22  EU , Col 2,14  EU ) and are lost without exception ( Rom 5,18  EU , 1 Cor 15, 18  EU ). A condemnation judgment of God ( Rom 5,16  EU ) would stand against all people .

It is a Pauline interpretation that finds its solution in the redemption of humanity through the sacrificial death of Christ ( Rom. 5:18  EU ). His 'doctrine of redemption' is tied to the confession of the sacrificial death of Jesus and baptism as the only human act that leads to salvation, nothing else can contribute to it ( Rom 3:24  EU , Rom 9:16  EU , 1 Cor 1:29  EU , Gal 2.16  EU ). It should be noted that Jesus neither in Matthew's Sermon on the Mount ( Mt 5-7  EU ), still in the Lukan Sermon (6.17 to 49 EU ) or scattered in the Thomistic sayings (Logion 36; 62; 54; 69) yet spoke of such a 'Pauline doctrine of redemption' in his parables or in the Lord's Prayer .

literature

• Guido Baltes : “Freedom from the Law” - a Pauline formula? Paul between Jewish law and Christian freedom. In: Armin D. Baum, Detlef Häußer, Emmanuel L. Rehfeld (ed.): The Jewish Messiah Jesus and his Jewish apostle Paulus. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-16-153872-8 , pp. 265-314, digital reprint by the author with the permission of the publisher, accessed on May 30, 2018 [39]
• Terence L. Donaldson : Zealot and Convert: The Origin of Paul's Christ-Torah Antithesis. CBQ 51/4 (1989): 655-682
• Adolf Deissmann : Paul. A sketch of the history of culture and religion. JCB Mohr, Tuebingen 1911
• Antonio Gramsci : On politics, history and culture. Selected writings , Röderberg, Frankfurt / M. 1986, ISBN 3-87682-461-3 , p. 221 f.
• Timo Güzelmansur, Tobias Specker SJ (Ed.): Paulus von Tarsus, Architect of Christianity? Islamic interpretations and Christian reactions. Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg 2016, ISBN 978-3-7917-7085-7
• Larry Weir Hurtado : Lord Jesus Christ. Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. William B. Eerdmans Publishing, Grand Rapids, Michigan / Cambridge UK 2003, ISBN 0-8028-6070-2 ( [40] on azbyka.ru)
• Robert Jewett : Paul's Chronology. One try. Chr. Kaiser Verlag, Munich 1982, ISBN 3-459-01404-0
• Otto Kuss : The role of the apostle Paul in the theological development of the early church. Munich Theological Journal, Volume 14, 1963, Issue 1, pp. 1–59 ( PDF; 8.83 MB , 59 pp.).
• Martin Hengel , Anna Maria Schwemer : Paul between Damascus and Antioch. The Apostle's Unknown Years. JCB Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1998, ISBN 3-16-146749-3 (text excerpt [41] on mohrsiebeck.com)
• Otto Pfleiderer : Paulinism. A contribution to the history of early Christian theology. Fues`s Verlag (R. Reisland), Leipzig 1873 ( [42] on archive.org)
• Rainer Riesner: Jesus, Paulus and us. theological contributions, volume 45 (2014), 6–15 xn--theologische-beitrge-szb.de
• Hans-Martin Schenke , Gesine Schenke: The letters of Paul and writings of Paulinism. Mohn, Gütersloh 1978, ISBN 3-579-04074-X (Introduction to the Writings of the New Testament; Vol. 1)
• Udo Schnelle : Paul: Living and Thinking. Walter de Gruyter, BerlinBoston 2014, ISBN 978-3-11-030157-1 .
• Torrey Seland: Saul of Tarsus and Early Zealotism. Reading Gal 1.13-14. In: Light of Philo's Writings. Bib. 83/4 (2002), pp. 449-471.
• Gerd Theissen : Studies on the sociology of early Christianity. Vol. 19 Scientific studies on the New Testament, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1989, ISBN 978-3-16-145448-6
• Hans-Ulrich Weidemann : The Apostle of the Nations from the seed of Abraham. Highlights from the more recent Pauline discussions In: Timo Güzelmansur, Tobias Specker SJ (Ed.): Paulus von Tarsus, Architect of Christianity? Islamic interpretations and Christian reactions. Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg, pp. 155–191 uni-siegen.de

Web links

• Gerd Häfner : The historical figure of Paul and The historical figure of Paul and their meaning for the history of early Christianity. Revision course for teacher training students, basic knowledge of the New Testament, summer semester 2013, accessed on April 15, 2018 kaththeol.uni-muenchen.de
• Bernhard Heininger: Justification with Paul. The beginnings: the conflict in Galatia. December 4, 2017, accessed on April 2, 2018 fernblick-wuerzburg.de
• Friedrich-Wilhelm Horn: Justification (NT). Created: April 2011, permanent link to the article: bibelwissenschaft.de bibelwissenschaft.de
• Markus Sasse: Nero and the Christians. Issue 3, Speyer 2016, ed. v. Thomas Niederberger (Office for Religious Education, Evangelical Church of the Palatinate) and Markus Sasse (Regional specialist advice for Protestant religious teaching at grammar schools) [43]
• Jörg Sieger: On the theology of Paul. Last change: March 15, 2011, accessed on April 2, 2018 joerg-sieger.de
• Thomas Söding: "I live, but not I ..." (Gal 2,19) The theological physiognomy of Paul. Pp. 1–17 [44]
• Pauline theology. Lecture script, kaththeol.uni-muenchen.de, pp. 1–20, accessed on April 3, 2018 kaththeol.uni-muenchen.de
• Paul and John - Basics of their theology. Winter semester 2017/18 ( PDF 828 KB; 163 pages from kaththeol.uni-muenchen.de, accessed on October 20, 2019)

References and comments

1. ↑ on the criticism of the Pauline letters or theology, see Critique of the Origin of the Pauline Letters .
2. ↑ Udo Schnelle : Theology of the New Testament. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2917-7 , p. 186.
3. ^ Wilhelm Nestle : The crisis of Christianity in the modern world. Its cause, its becoming and its meaning. H. Hannsmann, Stuttgart 1947, p. 89.
4. ↑ Otto Pfleiderer : The Paulinism. A contribution to the history of early Christian theology. Fues's Verlag (R. Reisland), Leipzig 1873 ( [1] on archive.org)
5. ↑ Louis Auguste Sabatier : L'Apôtre Paul (1870) (3. Ed. 1896) [2] (in English [3] on archive.org)
6. ^ Albert Schweitzer : History of Pauline Research from the Reformation to the Present. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim 1911, p. 25 ( [4] on books.google.de).
7. ↑ Karl Holsten : On the Gospel of Paul and Peter. Rostock 1867.
8. ^ Heinrich Holtzmann : Critique of the Epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians on the basis of an analysis of their relationship. Published by Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig 1872
9. ↑ Oda Wischmeyer (Ed.): Paulus. Life - Environment - Work - Letters. UTB 2767, A. Francke, Tübingen 2012, ISBN 978-3-8252-3601-4 , p. 120 f.
10. ↑ Gerd Theißen , Petra von Gemünden : Der Römerbrief. Accountability of a reformer. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-525-51013-1 , p. 13
11. ↑ Guido Baltes: Paulus - Jew with a mission. Old belief in a changed culture. Francke, Marburg an der Lahn 2016, ISBN 978-3-86827-617-6
12. ↑ Hyam Maccoby : The Mythmaker. Paul and the Invention of Christianity. Transl. And ed. by Fritz Erik Hoevels. Ahriman-Verlag, Freiburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-89484-605-3 , p. 119
13. ↑ Krister Stendhal : The Jew Paulus and we Gentiles. Inquiries to Western Christianity. Chr. Kaiser, Munich 1986, ISBN 978-3-459-01177-3 , p. 11
14. ↑ Cyprian Broodbank: The Birth of the Mediterranean World. HCBeck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-406-71369-9 , p. 31.
15. ↑ Udo Schnelle: The first 100 years of Christianity 20–130 AD. 2nd edition, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8252-4606-8 , pp. 91–92.
16. ^ Jens Börstinghaus: The Gallio inscription. P. 1–10, November 2005 PDF 1.9 kB, 10 pages on New Testamentliches-repetitorium.de
17. ↑ Carl-Jürgen Kaltenborn: Methusalems Ökumene: Questionable Bible and world view. BoD - Books on Demand, 2013 ISBN 978-3-7322-1277-4 , p. 162
18. ^ Robert Jewett: Paulus Chronologie. One try. Chr. Kaiser Verlag, Munich 1982, ISBN 3-459-01404-0 . P. 72 f.
19. ↑ Hans-Josef Klauck : The apocryphal Bible: a different approach to early Christianity. Vol. 4 Tria Corda: Jena lectures on Judaism, antiquity and Christianity, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-16-149686-8 , p. 199
20. ^ Anton Grabner-Haider: Cultural History of the Bible. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-525-57309-9 , p. 369 f.
21. ↑ Jörg Frey: Jewish Christianity. created October 2015, bibelwissenschaft.de bibelwissenschaft.de
22. ^ Günther Bornkamm : Paulus. 4th edition, W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne Mainz 1979, ISBN 3-17-005637-9 , p. 31.
23. ↑ Guido Baltes: Paulus - Jew with a mission. Old belief in a changed culture. Francke, Marburg an der Lahn, ISBN 978-3-86827-617-6 , pp. 30-35.
24. ↑ Robert Eisenman : James the brother of Jesus. The key to the mystery of early Christianity and the Qumran scrolls. C. Bertelsmann, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-570-00071-0 , p. 44.
25. ↑ Markus Sasse: Jesus in Jerusalem. A search for clues. Online material RPH 2-2018 "The time and the world of Jesus" ( PDF 2.8 MB; 45 pages on bildungsnetz.bildung-rp.de)
26. ↑ Walther John: P. Quinctilius Varus. In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume XXIV, Stuttgart 1963, Col. 911 ff.
27. ↑ On the activity of the Varus cf. the report of Flavius ​​Josephus , Jüdischer Krieg 1,617 ff .; 2.1 ff .; Same, Jewish Antiquities 17.89 ff.
28. ↑ Karoline Resch: Modern approaches to questions of the loss of control of an occupying power - Rome and Judea. ÖMZ, Austrian Military Journal, 6/2013, pp. 3–14 bundesheer.at PDF 1.9 kB, 51 pages
29. ↑ Shimon Gibson : The Seven Last Days of Jesus: The Archaeological Facts. CH Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-60502-4 , p. 128.
30. ↑ Andreas Gerstacker: The Quirinius census and the dating of the birth of Jesus - sources, arguments and approaches to interpretation. Part 1: Introductory Considerations. Institute for Faith and Science, Marburg, www.iguw.de, accessed May 20, 2018 [5]
31. ↑ Yinon Shivti'el: Hidden in caves and ravines. Rebels and zealots at Lake Gennesaret . In: Jürgen K. Zangenberg , Jens Schröter (Ed.): Farmers, fishermen and prophets. Galilee in the time of Jesus. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Darmstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-8053-4543-9 , pp. 65–82.
32. ↑ The Zealots. bibelwissenschaft.de [6]
33. ↑ Jens Schröter: Jesus of Nazareth. Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, Leipzig 2006, ISBN 3-374-02409-2 , p. 113.
34. ↑ Paul Schwarzenau : The greater god. Christianity and world religions. Radius-Verlag, Stuttgart 1977, ISBN 3-87173-526-4 , p. 44
35. ↑ In the ancient world there was no social institution that corresponded to the term “religion” as it is used in today's language . Instead, religion in a broader sense was an aspect of ethnicity ; H. Religious practices were tied into the two most important ancient institutions: the family / clan and the state or community. see Angelika Strotmann : The historical Jesus: An introduction. 2nd edition, UTB 3553, Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2015, ISBN 978-3-8252-4160-5 , pp. 68-69
36. ^ Günter Stemberger : Introduction to Jewish Studies. Beck, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-406-49333-5 , p. 35 f.
37. ↑ The Hebrew script is originally an Aramaic script that was only adopted by the Jews during their Babylonian exile . The exile begins in 597 BC. Chr. With the capture of Jerusalem and the Kingdom Judah by Babylon King Nebukadnezar II. And lasts up to the conquest of Babylon 539 v. By the Persian king Cyrus II . In contrast to the Hebrew script is the old Hebrew script , which developed from the Phoenician alphabet .
38. ↑ Cecilia Wassen: The Jewishness of Jesus and ritual purity. Jewish Studies in the Nordic Countries Today, Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis, 27 (2016), pp. 11-36 [7] .
39. ↑ Thomas Söding: Jesus in Judaism in his time. The lecture during your studies. Lecture script, Catholic-Theological Faculty, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, SS 2014, pp. 1–73, PDF 613 KB, 73 pages at Catholic Ruhr-Universität-Bochum.
40. ^ Friedhelm Winkelmann : History of early Christianity. CH Beck, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-44797-6 , p. 35.
41. ↑ Markus Vinzent : The resurrection of Christ in early Christianity. Herder, Freiburg i.Br. 2014, ISBN 978-3-451-31212-0 , pp. 43-46
42. ↑ Hyam Maccoby : The Mythmaker. Paul and the Invention of Christianity. Original 1986, transl. And ed. by Fritz Erik Hoevels , Ahriman-Verlag, Freiburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-89484-605-3 , p. 28
43. ↑ Also willיֵשׁוּ הַנּוֹצְרִי Yeshu haNotzri (Yeshu of the Nazarenes) used in secular and rabbinical texts , see also Jan AB Jongeneel: Jesus Christ in world history: his presence and representation 2009, p. 84: “Both Talmuds include polemical statements, usually brief and oblique, about Yeshu ha-Nozri, whose life and teachings are ... "יֵשׁוּעַ מִנָּצְרַת Yeshua miNatzrath (Yeshua of Nazareth) but only in texts by Christians.ברית חדשהModern Hebrew version, United Bible Societies. Later his name was given the addition “ Messiah ” ( Hebrew משיח Maschiach or Moschiach ) Meschiah , in Greek transcription Μεσσίας , translated into Greek ( Χριστός Christós )
44. ^ Anton Mayer : The censored Jesus. New Testament sociology. Walter Verlag, Olten and Freiburg im Breisgau 1983, ISBN 3-530-55610-6 , pp. 21-46
45. ↑ August Strobel : The date of the death of Jesus. Overview and suggested solution including the Qumran calendar. ZNW 51 (1960), 69 101
46. ^ Robert Jewett: Paulus Chronologie. One try. Chr. Kaiser Verlag, Munich 1982, ISBN 3-459-01404-0 , pp. 50–51
47. ↑ Both the year of birth and the day of death remain speculative; so the year is 7 BC Assumed, with a range of 6 to 4 BC. Chr. Angelika Strohmann: The historical Jesus: an introduction. UTB, Schöningh, Paderborn 2012, ISBN 978-3-8252-3553-6 , p. 57; Friday 14th Nisan 30 was also assumed to be the day of death
48. ↑ When did Jesus Christ die? - A contribution to the chronology of the Gospels - Why Jesus Christ probably died in the year 31 AD. 2002 EFG Berlin ( [8] accessed at efg-hohenstaufenstr.de)
49. ↑ Hyam Maccoby : The Mythmaker. Paul and the Invention of Christianity. Transl. And ed. by Fritz Erik Hoevels, Ahriman-Verlag, Freiburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-89484-605-3 , pp. 32, 35
50. ↑ Klaus Berger : Jesus as Pharisees and early Christians as Pharisees. Novum Testamentum 30 (1988), No. 3, 231-262;
51. ↑ Willehad Paul Eckert , Hans Hermann Henrix (ed.): Jesu Jude-sein as access to Judaism. A handout for religious education and adult education. Einhard, Aachen 1980
52. ↑ Gerd Theißen : Studies on the sociology of early Christianity. Vol. 19, Scientific studies on the New Testament, JCB Mohr, Tübingen 1989, ISBN 3-16-145448-0 , p. 36
53. ↑ Angelika Strotmann: The historical Jesus: an introduction. 2nd Edition. UTB 3553, Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2015, ISBN 978-3-8252-4160-5 , p. 35.
54. ↑ Also "kingdom (kingship) of Heaven", Hebrew םימשתוכלמ malchut shamayim or מַלְכוּת מלכות malchut Elohim , it is the word malchut the verb malak based "reign" what, "act as a king and rule" or "act in the kingdom" means. This means that it is not a finished structure, but rather a process, a process in which Yahweh as King becomes effective in his people. See Georg Baudler : Jesus in the mirror of his parables. Calwer / Kösel, Stuttgart / Munich 1986, ISBN 3-7668-0804-4 , p. 28
55. ↑ Jürgen Becker : The early Christianity as a structured epoch. Stuttgarter Bibelstudien 155, Katholisches Bibelwerk, Stuttgart 1993, ISBN 3-460-04551-5 , p. 18; 20th
56. ↑ Robin Lane Fox : The Other Story of the Bible. Fact and Fiction in Scripture. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2019, ISBN 978-3-608-98116-2 , p. 146
57. ↑ 248 commandments and 365 prohibitions
58. ↑ Jürgen Roloff : Jesus. CH Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 978-3-406-44742-6 , p. 47; 72 f.
59. ↑ Also "kingdom (kingship) of Heaven", Hebrew םימשתוכלמ malchut shamayim or מַלְכוּת מלכות malchut Elohim , it is the word malchut the verb malak based "reign" what, "act as a king and rule" or "act in the kingdom" means. This means that it is not a finished structure, but rather a process, a process in which Yahweh as King becomes effective in his people. See Georg Baudler : Jesus in the mirror of his parables. Calwer / Kösel, Stuttgart / Munich 1986, ISBN 3-7668-0804-4 , p. 28
60. ↑ Angelika Strotmann : The historical Jesus: an introduction. UTB 3553, Schöningh, Paderborn 2012, ISBN 978-3-8252-3553-6 , p. 99 f.
61. ↑ To reconstruct the (original) 'early Jesus words', methodological criteria have been developed, the most important of which are the criterion of difference (" criterion of inevitability") and the criterion of coherence . Through the difference criterion, the 'historical Jesus' was peeled out of the traditional texts and states that such a tradition can be attributed to Jesus that is original to both early Judaism and early Christianity. Jesus does not regard the coherence criterion as detached from his (spiritual) environment.
62. ↑ Klaus Wengst : The Gospel of John. Theological commentary on the New Testament. 2nd edition, Vol. 4.2, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-17-019815-9 , pp. 251f.
63. ↑ Reza Aslan : Zealot. Jesus of Nazareth and his time. Rowohlt, Reinbek near Hamburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-498-00083-7 , p. 49 f.
64. ↑ Klaus Haacker: Who was to blame for Jesus' death? In: Klaus Haacker : Reconciliation with Israel. Exegetical contributions. Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2002, ISBN 3-7887-1836-6 .
65. ↑ Hyam Maccoby : The Mythmaker. Paul and the Invention of Christianity. Transl. And ed. by Fritz Erik Hoevels. Ahriman-Verlag, Freiburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-89484-605-3 , pp. 55 f.
66. ↑ or Aramaic Rabbuni "Master, Teacher".
67. ↑ Pinchas Lapide : Paul between Damascus and Qumran. Misinterpretations and translation errors. Gerd Mohn, Gütersloh 1993, ISBN 3-579-01425-0 , p. 17 f.
68. ↑ Pinchas Lapide: Paul between Damascus and Qumran. Misinterpretations and translation errors. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 1993, ISBN 3-579-01425-0 , p. 18
69. ↑ Tom Wright, What Paul Was Really About. Brunnen Verlag, Giessen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7655-1454-8 , pp. 30–33
70. ↑ Judaism at the time of Jesus. Word in picture publishing and sales company, 2017 [9]
71. ^ Nicholas Thomas Wright : Paul and the Faithfulness of God. Vol. 4 Christian Origins and the Question of God, SPCK Publishing, London UK 2013, ISBN 978-0-281-05554-8 , p. 86
72. ^ Adolf Schlatter : Paulus and ancient Judaism: Tübingen-Durham-Symposium in memory of the 50th anniversary of Adolf Schlatter's death (May 19, 1938). Vol. 58 Scientific studies on the New Testament, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1991, ISBN 978-3-1614-5795-1 , p. 223
73. ↑ some authors, according to Pinchas Lapide , saw the term "Damascus" or "Damascus experience" as a code for Qumran [10] ; which placed the place of the calling, which was not determined by Paul himself, in the Wadi Qumran . At this place met between 539 BC. and AD 70 three roads: from Jerusalem in the west (25 km away), from Jericho in the north (15 km away) and from Ein Gedi in the south (32 km away). He was also not in "Arabia" Gal 1.17  EU , but rather it was about the Arava Valley (הערבה, occasionally also Araba (h) or Aravatal ), a depression from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba , in which the border between today's Israel and Jordan runs.
74. ^ Oda Wischmeyer : Paulus. Life - Environment - Works - Letters. 2nd improved and expanded edition (UTB), A. Francke, Tübingen 2012, ISBN 978-3-8252-3601-4 , p. 115.
75. ↑ Otakar A. Funda: The emergence of the Christian faith. DTP Karolinum, Prague 2012, ISBN 978-80-246-2112-8 , p. 15, accessed May 19, 2018 PDF 195 KB, 21 pages
76. ↑ Stefan Krauter: Studies on Rom 13: 1-7: Paul and the political discourse of the Neronian era. Vol. 243 Scientific studies on the New Testament, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-16-150099-2 , p. 88 f
77. ↑ David Flusser: Paulus. In Edward Schillebeeckx , Eduard Schweizer , Erich Lessing (eds.): Paulus. Herder Verlag, Freiburg im Breisgau 1985, ISBN 3-451-18157-6
78. ↑ At the turn of the ages, from approx. 100 BC Until 4 BC Qumran was inhabited. Then after a short break there was another settlement of 1 BC. BC to AD 68, when the Romans destroyed Qumran. Roman military was stationed here from 68 to 73 or even 90 AD.
79. ↑ David Flusser : The Essenian Adventure. The Dead Sea Jewish Community. Abnormalities in Jesus, Paulus, Didache and Martin Buber. With a foreword by Clemens Thoma, Cardun, Winterthur 1994, ISBN 3-905270-01-3
80. ↑ some theologians see a cipher for Qumran in “Damascus” . This contrasts with the fact that the Nabataeans , who were once expelled , succeeded in re-conquering the city of Damascus in AD 37 . With the toleration of the Romans, they were able to stay there until 54 AD. Then the Romans ruled again.
81. ↑ Ethelbert Stauffer : Jerusalem and Rome in the age of Jesus Christ. Francke Verlag, Bern / Munich 1957
82. ↑ Ethelbert Stauffer: The crucified Torah teacher. Journal of Religious and Intellectual History, Vol. 8, No. 3 (1956), pp. 250-253
83. ↑ Thomas Schumacher : On the emergence of Christian language. An examination of the Pauline idioms and the use of the term πίστις. V&R unipress, Bonn 2012, ISBN 978-3-86234-944-9 (e-book) ( PDF 3.895 KB, 545 pages on bonndoc.ulb.uni-bonn.de), here p. 100 f.
84. ↑ Hyam Maccoby : The Mythmaker. Paul and the Invention of Christianity. Transl. And ed. by Fritz Erik Hoevels, Ahriman-Verlag, Freiburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-89484-605-3 , pp. 68-80
85. ↑ Peter Pilhofer : Chapter II. The early days of Paul. P. 22 ( [11] on www.neutestamentliches-repetitorium.de)
86. ↑ Pinchas Lapide : Paul between Damascus and Qumran. Misinterpretations and translation errors. Gerd Mohn, Gütersloh 1993, ISBN 3-579-01425-0 , pp. 36-37
87. ↑ see also the " Temple cleansing by Jesus" ( Matthew 21.12ff  EU ; Mark 11.15ff  EU ; Luke 19.45ff  EU ; John 2.13-16  EU ) and Martin Stowasser : Jesus' confrontation with the temple operations in Jerusalem - a Conflict Between Religion and Economy? In: Martin Fitzenreiter (ed.): The holy and the goods. On the tension between religion and economy. (= Internet articles on Egyptology and Sudan archeology - IBAES, Volume VII), Berlin 2007, pp. 39–51 ( PDF 252 KB 13 pages on 2.rz.hu-berlin.de)
88. ^ Friedhelm Winkelmann: History of early Christianity. CH Beck, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-44797-6 , p. 35
89. ↑ Gerhard Bodendorfer: Comments on the social historical background of the development of the synagogue, Protocols to the Bible 2. 1993, pp. 47–59, here pp. 53–55 ( PDF 2.3 MB , 90 pp., On uni-salzburg.at)
90. ↑ Gideon Hartman Guy Bar-Oz, Ram Bouchnick, Ronny Reich: The pilgrimage economy of Early Roman Jerusalem (1st century BCEe70 CE) reconstructed from the d15N and d13C values ​​of goat and sheep remains. In: Journal of Archaeological Science. 40 (2013), pp. 4369–4376 ( [12] on lecturers.haifa.ac.il)
91. ↑ Gerd Theißen , Petra von Gemünden : Der Römerbrief. Accountability of a reformer. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-525-51013-1 , pp. 17-19; 60 f.
92. ↑ Otto Pfleiderer : The Paulinism. A contribution to the history of early Christian theology. Fues`s Verlag (R. Reisland), Leipzig 1873, pp. 324–403 ( [13] on archive.org).
93. ^ Karl Jaroš: The New Testament and its authors. An introduction. UTB, Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-8252-3087-6 , p. 14.
94. ↑ Thomas Schumacher : On the emergence of Christian language. An examination of the Pauline idioms and the use of the term πίστις. V&R unipress, Bonn University Press, Bonn 2012, ISBN 978-3-89971-944-4 , pp. 83f. ( [14] on bonndoc.ulb.uni-bonn.de).
95. ^ Anton Grabner-Haider: Cultural History of the Bible. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-525-57309-9 , p. 334
96. ↑ Max Pohlenz: Paulus and the Stoa. In: Journal for New Testament Science and the Knowledge of the Older Church. Volume 42, Issue 1, pp. 69-104, doi: 10.1515 / zntw.1949.42.1.69 .
97. ^ Bernhard Heininger: Once Tarsus and back (Acts 9.30; 11.25-26) Paul as a teacher according to the Acts of the Apostles. In: MTZ . Volume 49, No. 2 (1998) PDF 1.4 kB , 19 pp.
98. ↑ 2 Cor 4, 8-10  EU
99. ↑ Wolfgang Schrage: Theology of the Cross and Ethics in the New Testament. Collected Studies. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, p. 29f.
100. ↑ Udo Schnelle: Paulus: Living and Thinking. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-089364-9 , p. 69
101. ^ Shalom Ben-Chorin : Paulus. The Apostle of the Nations from a Jewish perspective. DTV / List, Munich 1981, ISBN 3-423-01550-0 , pp. 38-39
102. ^ Günther Bornkamm: Paulus. 4th edition. W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne / Mainz 1979, ISBN 3-17-005637-9 , p. 34
103. ↑ Claudius , Roman emperor at this time , he ruled from January 24, 41 AD until his death in 54.
104. ↑ Werner Mücher: Timeline about the life and work of the Apostle Paul. Version: June 5, 2016, pp. 1–22 biblische-lehre-wm.de
105. ↑ Roman emperor Nero at this time , he was ruler of the Roman Empire from 54 AD to 68 AD
106. ↑ Stefan Alkier , Markus Witte (ed.): The Greeks and ancient Israel. Interdisciplinary studies on the religious and cultural history of the Holy Land. Academic Press Friborg / Paulusverlag Freiburg Switzerland / Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2004, ISBN 3-7278-1477-2 ( PDF; 4.58 MB , 221 pages).
107. ↑ Dietrich-Alex Koch : History of early Christianity. 2nd Edition. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2014, ISBN 978-3-525-52202-8 , p. 68.
108. ↑ Bernhard Linke: Ancient Religion. Oldenbourg, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-486-59702-8 , p. 2.
109. ↑ See Martin R. von Ostheim : Self-redemption through knowledge. The Gnosis in the 2nd Century AD Schwabe, Basel 2013, ISBN 978-3-7965-2894-1 , p. 7.
110. ↑ Udo Schnelle : The first 100 years of Christianity 30–130 AD. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8252-4411-8 , pp. 540–558.
111. ↑ Kurt Rudolph (ed.): Gnosis and Gnosticism. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1975, ISBN 978-3-534-04903-5 ( PDF; 13.2 MB , 430 pages, accessed from gnosis.study ).
112. ↑ Walter Schmithals : Paulus and the Gnostics: Investigations into the little Paulus letters. Herbert Reich - Evangelischer Verlag, Hamburg-Bergstedt 1965.
113. ↑ Elaine Pagels : The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters. Reprint, Trinity Press International, New York 1992, ISBN 978-1-56338-039-6 .
114. ↑ This leads Edwin M. Yamauchi : Pre-Christian Gnosticism. A Survey of the Proposed Evidences. 2nd Edition. Wipf and Stock, Eugene, Oregon 1973, ISBN 1-59244-396-6 , p. 18, to - referring to the congress "The Origins of Gnosticism", Messina 1966 - that between a "Pre-Gnostic" and a "Proto-Gnostic" is to be distinguished. The first term refers to ideas from pre-Christian times that later found their way into Gnostic systems. The latter are early and still incomplete forms of Gnostic views, which then became decisive in Gnosticism in the 2nd century.
115. ^ Hermann Detering : Gnostic elements in the Pauline letters. Version May 9, 2017 PDF; 545 kB , 82 pages, on Radikalkritik.de .
116. ↑ Hans-Friedrich Weiß : Early Christianity and Gnosis: A study of the history of reception (Scientific studies on the New Testament). Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-16-149606-6 , p. 399; 478 f
117. ↑ Martin Hengel : Paulus and Jakobus. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2002, ISBN 3-16-147710-3 , pp. 473-510.
118. ↑ Jaan Lahe: Four Gnostic Mythologems and their Jewish Background. TRAMES, 2007, 11 (61/56), 3, pp. 251–275, here p. 253 PDF; 135 KB, 25 pages accessed from Estonian Academy Publishers
119. ↑ Konrad Dietzfelbinger : Redemption through knowledge - The Gnosis. Königsdorfer Verlag, Königsdorf 2008, ISBN 978-3-938156-12-4 , p. 156.
120. ↑ Jaan Lahe : The points of contact between Gnosis and Judaism and their reflections in the authentic letters of Paul. Master's thesis, Tartu 2004, PDF; 1.19 MB, 265 pages
121. ^ Paul-Gerhard Klumbies : Marcion as Paul and Luke interpreter. In: Markus Lang (Ed.): A new gender ?: Development of early Christian self-confidence. Vol. 105 Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus / Studies on the Environment of the New Testament, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2013, ISBN 978-3-6475-9364-7 , p. 111, footnote 44
122. ↑ Konrad Dietzfelbinger : Redemption through knowledge - The Gnosis. Königsdorfer Verlag, Königsdorf 2008, ISBN 978-3-938156-12-4 , p. 136
123. ↑ Gerd Lüdemann : Heretic: The dark side of early Christianity. 2nd ed., Klampen, Springe 2016, ISBN 978-3-86674-531-5 , p. 226; 267.
124. ↑ Ulrich Schmid: Marcion and his Apostolos: Reconstruction and historical classification of the Marcionite edition of St. Paul. Work on New Testament Text Research, Vol. 25, De Gruyter, Berlin 1995, Reprint 2012, ISBN 978-3-110-14695-0 , p. 284; 313 f.
125. ^ Karl Jaroš : The New Testament and its authors. An introduction. UTB. 3087 Theology, Religion, Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-8252-3087-6 , p. 132.
126. ^ Wayne A. Meeks : Early Christianity and Urban Culture. The social world of the Pauline congregations. Chr. Kaiser Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 1993, ISBN 3-579-01824-8 , p. 21
127. ↑ Reza Aslan: Zealot. Jesus of Nazareth and his time. Rowohlt, Hamburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-498-00083-7 , p. 22
128. ^ Hans Dieter Betz: Pauline theology and history of religion. Collected articles by V. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2009.
129. ↑ Paulus and John - Fundamentals of their theology. Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, winter semester 2017/18 kaththeol.uni-muenchen.de PDF 828 kB, 163 pages
130. ↑ all information according to Udo Schnelle: Introduction to the New Testament , 3rd edition, Göttingen 1999, pp. 58–166
131. ↑ Willem Christiaan van Manen : The inauthenticity of the Romans. G. Strübigs Verlag, Leipzig 1906 [15]
132. ^ Hermann Detering: Paulus letters without Paulus ?: The Paulusbriefe in the Dutch radical criticism. Contexts, Vol. 10, Peter Lang, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, Bern / Pieterlen 1992, ISBN 3-63-144787-6 .
133. ↑ Hermann Detering : Staged forgeries: The Paulus letters in the Dutch radical criticism. radikalkritik, Independently published 2017, ISBN 978-1-98021-2256 , p. 36 f
134. ^ Hermann Detering : The Paulus letters in the Dutch radical criticism. Berlin 2000 [16] (PDF; 116 kB), 35 pages, German, online at radikalkritik.de .
135. ^ Edward Evanson, The Dissonance of the Four Generally Received Evangelists. Gloucester (England) 1792
136. ^ E. Earle Ellis: The Making of the New Testament Documents. Brill, Leiden 2002, ISBN 0391041681 , p. 440 and fn. 31
137. ^ Edwin Johnson: Antiqua Mater. Who were the first Christians? Frans-Joris Fabri, Books on Demand, Norderstedt 2010, ISBN 978-3-839163146 , p. 222 f. [17] (PDF; 6.93 MB, pages 353, English, online at archive.org, here p. 213 f.)
138. ^ Edwin Johnson: The Pauline Epistles. Watts and Co., London 1894
139. ^ Edwin Johnson: Antiqua Mater. Who were the first Christians? Frans-Joris Fabri (editor), Books on Demand, Norderstedt 2010, ISBN 978-3-839163146 , p. 242 f.
140. ^ Hermann Detering: Staged forgeries. The Pauline letters in the Dutch radical criticism. Independently published, 2017, ISBN 978-1-980-21225-6 , p. 199; 216
141. ↑ Philipp Vielhauer : History of early Christian literature. Introduction to the New Testament, the Apocrypha, and the Apostolic Fathers. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1975, ISBN 3-11-007763-9 , p. 784
142. ↑ Adolf von Harnack : Marcion: The gospel of the foreign god. A monograph on the history of the foundation of the Catholic Church. http: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3DAdolfHarnack.MarcionDasEvangeliumVomFremdenGott~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3Dn4~ double-sided%3D~LT%3D%27%27Marcion%3Av%20Das%% 20of% 20Strangers% 20God.% 20A% 20Monograph% 20for% 20History% 20der% 20Fundament% 20der% 20Catholic% 20Church.% 27% 27 ~ PUR% 3D2nd, improved and increased edition, JC Hinrichs`sche Buchhandlung, Leipzig 1924, p. 8
143. ^ Robert M. Price : The Amazing Colossal Apostle: The Search for the Historical Paul. Signature Books, Salt Lake City, Utah 2012, ISBN 1-56085-216-X .
144. ^ Samuel George Frederick Brandon : Ancient Empires. Volume 1: Milestones of history. Newsweek, 1970.
145. ↑ Ulrike Margarethe Salome Röhl: The Paulus student Markion. A critical study of anti-Judaism in the 2nd century (= scientific articles from Tectum Verlag. Volume 8). Tectum, Marburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-8288-3344-9 , p. 298.
146. ↑ Gerd Lüdemann : Heretic: The dark side of early Christianity. 2nd Edition. Klampen, Springe 2016, ISBN 978-3-86674-531-5 , pp. 226, 267.
147. ↑ Otto Kuss : The role of the apostle Paul in the theological development of the early church. Munich Theological Journal 14. Born in 1963, issue 1, pp. 1-59 ( PDF; 10.3 MB , 59 pp., On mthz.ub.lmu.de ) here p. 13, footnote 35.
148. ^ Matthias Klinghardt: The oldest gospel and the origin of the canonical gospels. Investigation - reconstruction - translation - variants. 2 volumes. Francke, Tübingen 2015, ISBN 978-3-7720-8549-9 .
149. ^ Matthias Klinghardt: The oldest gospel and the origin of the canonical gospels. Investigation - reconstruction - translation - variants. 2 volumes. Francke, Tübingen 2015, ISBN 978-3-7720-8549-9 , pp. 191, 183.
150. ↑ Anton Grabner-Haider (Ed.): Cultural History of the Bible. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-525-57309-9 , p. 388.
151. ↑ Erich Lessing (Ed.): Paulus. In 114 color pictures with contributions by David Flusser , Edward Schillebeeckx , Eduard Schweizer . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau / Basel / Vienna 1980, ISBN 3-451-18157-6 , p. 15.
152. ↑ Walter Grundmann: The early Christianity and their writings. Environment, origin and character of the New Testament books. Calwer Verlag, Stuttgart 1983, ISBN 3-7668-0723-4 , p. 41
153. ↑ Mk 9.5; 11.21; 14.45; Joh 1,38,49; Jn 3,2; 4.31 u. a.
154. ↑ Mk 10.51; John 20:16
155. ↑ The two Greek words ancient Greek Χρ ι στός christós Christos and ancient Greek χρ η στός chrestós "good, useful" Chréstos' have differences in their word origin despite all their ostensible similarity. Chréstos contains the verb ancient Greek χράω chrao "to consult an oracle" , which is roughly related to: ancient Greek χράομάι chraomai "to consult an oracle, learn fateful things from the oracle, judged by an oracle as fate" , furthermore "Chrésterion" is not only that Seat of the oracle, but also a gift to or for the oracle, ancient Greek χρηστης chréstes is someone who interprets or explains oracles, a prophet, a fortune teller and ancient Greek χρηστηρις chrésterios is someone who belongs to an oracle or god, master or in his Services. On the other hand, in ancient Greek χρ chω chrio mean rub, oil, anoint, that is what became "Christos".
156. ↑ Dieter Zeller: Son of Man. Created January 2011, bibelwissenschaft.de [18]
157. ↑ Carsten Colpe: ὁ ὑιὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου . In: ThWNT . Volume VIII (1969), pp. 403-481.
158. ↑ Christian Stettler : The final judgment with Paul. Frame semantic and exegetical studies on Pauline eschatology and soteriology. Vol. 371 Scientific studies on the New Testament, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2017, ISBN 978-3-16-155007-2 ( [19] on library.oapen.org)
159. ^ Rainer Gugl: On the exciting juxtaposition of Greco-Roman and Christian religiosity in ancient households. Protocols to the Bible 25 (2016) 97–118 ( [20] on protocolzurbibel.at), here p. 104
160. ↑ Sacrifice and feasts. German Bible Society, bibelwissenschaften.de [21]
161. ↑ Gerd Theißen: The religion of the first Christians. A theory of early Christianity. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2008, ISBN 978-3-579-02623-7 , p. 195
162. ↑ Joachim Schaper: Article victim. In: Frank Crüsemann, Kristian Hungar, Claudia Janssen, Rainer Kessler, Luise Schottroff (Eds.): Social history dictionary for the Bible. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2009, ISBN 978-3-579-08021-5 , p. 428.
163. ↑ Claudia Janssen: Sacrifice, Guilt and Atonement from a Christian Perspective in Conversation with Jewish and Ecumenical Perspectives. Contribution from the conference: A contribution from the conference: Sacrifice, guilt and atonement. 50 years of Action Reconciliation for Peace Services in Israel, Bad Boll, 18. – 20. November 2011 [22]
164. ^ Karl Jaroš: The New Testament and its authors. An introduction. (= UTB. 3087 Theology, Religion), Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-8252-3087-6 , pp. 32–34
165. ↑ Marie-Louise Gubler : The earliest interpretations of the death of Jesus: A motif-historical representation based on the more recent exegetical research. Universitätsverlag Freiburg Switzerland and Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1977, ISBN 3-525-53318-7 ( The earliest interpretations of the death of Jesus.pdf PDF 12.3 KB, 440 pages on zora.uzh.ch)
166. ↑ the demolition of the temple complex dragged on until at least the end of September
167. ^ Karl Jaroš: The New Testament and its authors. An introduction. (= UTB. 3087 Theology, Religion), Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-8252-3087-6 , pp. 56–56
168. ↑ Burton I. Mack: Who wrote the New Testament? The invention of the Christian myth. CH Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-44015-0 , p. 106 f.
169. ↑ Joel Carmichael : Stand up and call out His name. Paul, awakener of Christians and prophet of the Gentiles. C. Bertelsmann, Munich 1980, ISBN 3-570-00056-7 , p. 59 f.
170. ↑ Burton I. Mack: Who wrote the New Testament? The invention of the Christian myth. CH Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-44015-0 , p. 111 f.
171. ↑ Udo Schnelle: Theology of the New Testament. UTB, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2917-7 , pp. 166-167
172. ↑ Gerd Theißen: Experience and behavior of the first Christians. A psychology of early Christianity. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2007, ISBN 978-3-579-08014-7 , p. 34 f
173. ↑ Markus Vinzent: The resurrection of Christ in early Christianity . Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-451-31212-0 , p. 175.
174. ↑ Markus Vinzent : The resurrection of Christ in early Christianity . Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-451-31212-0 , p. 10.
175. ↑ Markus Vinzent : The resurrection of Christ in early Christianity . Herder Verlag, Freiburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-451-31212-0 , p. 13.
176. ↑ Konrad Dietzfelbinger : The Bible. Heinrich Hugendubel Verlag, Kreuzlingen / Munich 2001, ISBN 3-7205-2265-2 , p. 99
177. ↑ Ulrich Luz , Axel Michaels : Jesus or Buddha. Comparison of life and teaching. (= Beck'sche Reihe. 1462), Beck, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-406-47602-3 , p. 75.
178. ^ Luke Timothy Johnson : The Real Jesus: The Misguided Quest for the Historical Jesus and the Truth of the Traditional Gospels. Harper Collins, San Francisco 1997, ISBN 978-0-06064-166-5 , pp. 128 f.
179. ^ Luke Timothy Johnson, Todd C. Penner : The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation. Hymns Ancient and Modern, Norwich UK 1999, ISBN 978-0-33402-911-3 , p. 263 f.
180. ↑ Paul F. Knitter : Without Buddha I would not be a Christian. Herder, Freiburg / Basel / Vienna 2012, ISBN 978-3-451-30278-7 (Original: Without Buddha I Could not be a Christian. 2009 ISBN 978-1-85168-673-5 ), pp. 210-211.
181. ↑ Ulrich Winkler : For a pneumatological theology of religion. Salzburger Theologische Zeitschrift (SaThZ) 11 (2007), pp. 175–200 ( [23] on sbg.ac.at) here p. 187; 190
182. ^ Benjamin Ziemer: Bread (AT). Created: May 2007, ( [24] on www.bibelwissenschaft.de)
183. ↑ Compare also Kiddush and Symbols of Judaism .
184. ↑ The definite article “that” - here as a demonstrative pronoun, literally “this” - is a neuter in the Greek for Paul and the Synoptics, while “bread” is masculine there. Some translations, for example into German or English, hide this grammatical difference. Ulrich Luz: The Gospel according to Matthew , Volume 4, Düsseldorf / Neukirchen-Vluyn 2002, p. 112, note 84
185. ^ Daniel J. Harrington: The church according to the New Testament. 2001, ISBN 1-58051-111-2 , p. 49.
186. ↑ Hyam Maccoby: The Mythmaker. Paul and the Invention of Christianity. Transl. And ed. by Fritz Erik Hoevels. Ahriman-Verlag, Freiburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-89484-605-3 , p. 130.
187. ↑ Constantin Iacubovici-Boldisor : The early Christian mystery cults in Palestine, Asia Minor and Greece: sources recognized and reconstructed. Vol. 91 Hochschulschriften (Münster in Westfalen, Germany), LIT Verlag, Münster 1997, ISBN 978-3-82583-213-1 , pp. 132-133 ( [25] on books.google.de)
188. ↑ Hans Kloft : Mystery Cults of Antiquity. Gods, people, rituals. CH Beck, Munich 2019, ISBN 978-3-406-73659-9 , p. 40.
189. ↑ Udo Schnelle : Theology of the New Testament. UTB, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2917-7 , p. 184 f.
190. ^ Anton Grabner-Haider: Cultural History of the Bible. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-525-57309-9 , p. 356
191. ↑ Gerd Theißen: The religion of the first Christians. A theory of early Christianity. 4th edition, Gütersloher Verlaghaus, Gütersloh 2008, ISBN 978-3-579-02623-7 , pp. 74 f.
192. ^ Herbert Ulonska : Law and Circumcision. Reflections on a Pauline conflict of separation. In Dietrich-Alex Koch (ed.): Jesus' speech about God and its post-history in early Christianity: Contributions to the proclamation of Jesus and the kerygma of the church; Festschrift for Willi Marxen on his 70th birthday. Mohn, Gütersloh 1989, ISBN 3-579-00091-8 , pp. 314–331, here p. 331
193. ↑ Vatican Radio : Vatican: Hostility is an opportunity for testimony ( Memento of March 11, 2007 in the Internet Archive ). In: radiovaticana.org, January 10, 2007.
194. ↑ Jesus Christ died for our human sins
195. ↑ With the Passover - Lamb Paul refers to the crucifixion of Jesus ( 1 Cor 5,7  EU ). A selected animal died singularly instead of the sinner or for sin, which is why the offerings had to be made again and again. Animal sacrifices stopped for the (Jewish) Christians with Jesus Christ. After all, Jesus Christ was the one-time vicarious sacrifice for all time. Compare sacrificial animals in the Tanakh .
196. ↑ compare also Atonement Theology , Satisfaction Doctrine
197. ↑ Just as Adam's fall ushered in the age of death and sin for all human beings, so Jesus' death and resurrection opened the new age of the Spirit for all those who believe in this act of God's grace and expanded God's church to the whole world. Rom 5.12  EU
198. ↑ Holger Kersten : Jesus lived in India. His secret life before and after the crucifixion. 2nd edition, Langen Müller, Munich 1994, ISBN 3-7844-2440-6 , pp. 284-285
199. ↑ Martin Leuenberger: Kingship of God (AT). The Bible Lexicon, created: April 2012, accessed on December 29, 2018 [26]
200. ↑ Werner Georg Kümmel : The theology of the New Testament according to its main witnesses Jesus, Paulus, Johannes. Vol. 3 The New Testament German. Supplementary series. Floor plans for the New Testament, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1987, ISBN 978-3-525-51359-0 , p. 127
201. ↑ Peter Fechner: Paulus, the mission trips and Christianity: memories of the truth. Volume 12. neobooks, 2017, ISBN 978-3-7427-9852-7 .
202. ↑ Helmut Merklein: Studies on Jesus and Paul. Scientific studies on the New Testament, Volume 2, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1998, ISBN 978-3-16-146924-4 , p. 154
203. ↑ Gerd Theißen: Experience and behavior of the first Christians. A psychology of early Christianity. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2007, ISBN 978-3-579-08014-7 , pp. 79-101
204. ↑ Lorenzo Scornaienchi : Sarx and Soma with Paul. Man between destructiveness and constructiveness. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-5255-3966-8 , [27] .
205. ↑ Claudia Janssen: The beauty of the body is different. Paul and the resurrection in 1 Cor. 15. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2005, ISBN 3-579-05210-1 , p. 60
206. ↑ Lesson 8: Paul - own attempt at an overall representation. Further training in Bible studies NT, reformiert-online.net
207. ↑ Jane Schneider : Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies. Ethnology, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan., 1971), pp. 1-24 [28]
208. ↑ Halvor Moxnes: Honor and Shame. Biblical Theology Bulletin A Journal of Bible and Theology, November 1993 [29]
209. ^ Joachim Gnilka : Paulus von Tarsus. Herder Verlag, Freiburg 1997, ISBN 3-451-26377-7 .
210. ↑ Gerd Theißen , Petra von Gemünden : Der Römerbrief. Accountability of a reformer. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-525-51013-1 , p. 18.
211. ↑ The Hagion Pneuma can be translated as the Holy Spirit and connects with the ancient idea of ​​a Pneumas (from ancient Greek πνεῦμα pneũma , "spirit", "breath", "air", "breath"). The various concepts of the “breath of God”, in which the “divine spirit” works, overlap with the terms and theories. So the ancient Greek pneuma is not only related to the spirit, but more broadly. It also means something like vortex, breeze or pressure and has references to similar concepts such as the Hebrew Hebrew term des rûaḥs (רוּחַ), the Chinese Qì (Chi) or the Indian Prana or the Indian Akasha (see also the breath soul ).
212. ↑ Friedmann Eißler: Spirit (in religious movements). Material service 8/2018 [30] .
213. ↑ On the “Pauline antithesis” cf. Gerhard Ebeling : Spirit and Letter . In: Religion Past and Present. 3. Edition. Volume 2, Tübingen 1958, column 1290 ff.
214. ↑ Hermann Gunkel : The effects of the Holy Spirit: according to the popular view of the apostolic time and according to the teaching of the Apostle Paul: a biblical-theological study. Volume 1. Vandenhoeck & Ruprechts, Göttingen 1888, p. 62 f.
215. ↑ Thomas Auwärter: Spirituality around 1900. Historical-epistemological investigations of the Protestant pneumatology of the school of religious history. Dissertation, University of Bremen, Bremen 2006 ( [31] on elib.suub.uni-bremen.de), here p. 72 f.
216. ↑ Gerd Theißen : Experience and behavior of the first Christians. A psychology of early Christianity. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2007, ISBN 978-3-579-08014-7 , pp. 195–202, here p. 197.
217. ^ Stephan Witetschek: Speech in Tongues / Glossolalie. Created: September 2011 [32] on Bibelwissenschaften.de
218. ↑ The symbol "heart" has in its Hebrew word meaning "lev" (לב) has a much broader range of meanings. In addition to the seat of the emotion and the will, it also includes all functions that are ascribed to the head and brain in modern times: cognitive ability, reason, understanding, insight, consciousness, memory, knowledge, reflection, judgment, orientation, understanding. Hans Walter Wolff: Anthropology of the Old Testament. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2010, ISBN 978-3-579-08096-3 , p. 75 f.
219. ↑ Gerd Theißen: Experience and Understanding of the First Christians. A psychology of early Christianity. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2007, ISBN 978-3-579-08014-7 , p. 78.
220. ^ Paul-Gerhard Klumbies : Marcion as Paul and Luke interpreter. In: Markus Lang (Ed.): A new gender? Development of early Christian self-confidence (= Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus / Studies on the Environment of the New Testament. Volume 105). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2013, ISBN 978-3-6475-9364-7 , p. 111.
221. ^ Karl Kertelge : 'Justification' with Paul. Studies on the structure and meaning of the Pauline concept of justification (= New Testament treatises. New series 3). 2nd Edition. Aschendorff, Münster 1971, ISBN 978-3-402-03621-1 , pp. 286-287.
222. ↑ Jens-Christian Maschmeier, Reinhard von Bendemann: Justification with Paul: A Critique of Old and New Paulus Perspectives (= contributions to the science of the Old and New Testament. Tenth episode, volume 189). W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-17-021305-0 .
223. ^ Friedrich-Wilhelm Horn: Justification (NT), created: April 2011, bibelwissenschaft.de .
224. ^ Christian Hundt: Holiness at Paulus: Hagios and relatives in the Corpus Paulinum. Holiness in Paul: Hagios and Related Words in the Pauline Literature. Dissertation, University of South Africa, May 10, 2011 ( PDF; 1.64 kB , 196 pages).
225. ↑ Justification doctrine, heiligenlexikon.de .
226. ↑ Udo Schnelle : Theology of the New Testament. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-8252-2917-7 , pp. 190-192
227. ↑ Horst Balz: Art. Revelation IV: New Testament. In: TRE . 25, Berlin 1995, p. 140 f.
228. ↑ Frances Back: Metamorphosis through revelation in Paul. An exegetical study of the history of religion on 2 Cor 2.14–4.6. Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 2002, ISBN 978-3-16-147880-2 .
229. ↑ Ulrich Luz , Axel Michaels : Jesus or Buddha. Life and teaching in comparison (= BsR. 1462). Beck, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-406-47602-3 , p. 75.
230. ↑ Markus Vinzent : The resurrection of Christ in early Christianity. Herder, Freiburg i.Br. 2014, ISBN 978-3-451-31212-0 , p. 48
231. ^ Christiane Tietz: Mysterium water in antiquity and Christianity. Evangelical Theology, Volume 68, Issue 2, pp. 150–151, doi: 10.14315 / evth-2008-0209 .
232. ↑ Claudia Matthes: The baptism on the death of Christ: A ritual-scientific investigation into Christian baptism presented using the Pauline baptismal texts. NET New Testament drafts for theology, Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, Tübingen 2017, ISBN 978-3-7720-0044-7
233. ↑ Lars Hartman: nto the Name of the Lord Jesus. Baptism in the Early Church. Studies of the New Testament and Its World. T&T Clark, Edinburgh 1997, ISBN 978-0-567-08589-4 , pp. 31-32
234. ^ Everett Ferguson: Baptism in the Early Church. History, Theology, and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids 2009, pp. 25-37, 60-82, 83-96
235. ^ Cilliers Breytenbach: Baptism as a spatial metaphor in the letters of Paul. In: Fabian Horn, Cilliers Breytenbach (Ed.): Spatial Metaphors. Ancient Texts and Transformations (= Studies of the Ancient World. Volume 39). Berlin, ISBN 978-3-9816384-2-4 ( [33] ).
236. ↑ Kai radio Schmidt: dietary laws. Material service July 2017 ( [34] on ezw-berlin.de).
237. ↑ Alistair Scott May : "The Body for the Lord": Sex and Identity in 1 Corinthians 5-7. T&T Clark, London 2004, JSNT ( Journal for the study of the New Testament ), p. 278.
238. ↑ Joachim Jeremias : Was Paulus a widower? In: Journal for New Testament Science . 25, pp. 310-312 (1926).
239. ^ William Loader : Sexuality (NT). Created: August 2011; last change: November 2014, on www.bibelwissenschaft.de [35]
240. ↑ Manuél Ceglarek : The Speech of the Presence of God, Christ and the Spirit: An Inquiry into the Epistles of the Apostle Paul. Vol. 911 European university publications: Theologie, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main / New York / Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-6316-1383-2 , p. 218 f.
241. ↑ Martin Vahrenhorst : Cultic language in the Pauline letters. Vol. 230 Scientific studies on the New Testament, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-1614-9714-8 , p. 153 f.
242. ↑ Herbert Briem: The headgear of the woman. Notes on the interpretation of 1 Corinthians 11: 1–16. September 5, 2018, www.soundwords.de, accessed on September 9, 2018 [36]
243. ↑ Peter Lampe : Paul and the erotic charms of the Corinthians (1 Cor 11: 2-16). In: Impulse for Research and Practice (2012), ISBN 978-3-525-61617-8 , pp. 196-207 ( PDF 10.63 KB, 12 pages on archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de)
244. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 30, 3.
245. ↑ Villy Sørensen: Seneca - A humanist at Nero's court. Lindhardt og Ringhof, 2015, ISBN 978-87-11-46242-3
246. ^ Hanna Roose: Slavery (NT). Created: May 2010, bibelwissenschaft.de [37]
247. ↑ Dietrich-Alex Koch: History of early Christianity: A textbook. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2014, ISBN 978-3-525-52202-8 , p. 60
248. ↑ Roland Gayer: The position of the slave in the Pauline communities and with Paul: At the same time a socio-historical comparative contribution to the valuation of the slave. Series 23, Peter Lang Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, Frankfurt am Main 1977, ISBN 978-3-261-02113-7 .
249. ↑ Verse 16: What is decisive is the interpretation of the expressions οὐκέτι ὡς δοῦλον (“no longer like a slave”), as well as ἀλλ 'ὑπὲρ δοῦλον (“but more than a slave”), namely a beloved brother. For some, being recognized as a brother precludes being a slave, for others it does not.
250. ↑ compare ancient mystery cult
251. ↑ compare violent fantasy
252. ↑ Satan ( Hebrew שָׂטָן Satan "opponent") is a proper name in the New Testament and designates a supernatural being, spirit beings with god-like demonic powers, but which is not controlled by God and acts freely. Satan is the tempter in the various gospels.
253. ↑ Manuel Seibel: The devil - in the letters of the New Testament. June 6, 2003 ( [38] accessed on bibelpraxis.de on May 12, 2019)
254. ↑ Michael Lütge : Iranian traces in the Zostrianos of Nag Hammadi. Persian influences on Gnosis and Christianity. Dissertation at the University of Marburg, published under the same title by the Peter Lang publishing house in Frankfurt am Main 2010, ("Zostrianos" = gnostic script of the Sethians from the 3rd century and as a pseudepigraphy ascribed to Zostrianos or Zarathustra (Zoroaster)) ( PDF ; 4.67 MB, 375 pages ) on archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de, here p. 22
255. ↑ 2 Cor 4,4  EU.Hfa
256. ↑ Lothar Wehr : Function and empirical background of Paul's statements on Satan "... so that we are not outwitted by Satan" (2 Cor 2:11). Pp. 208–219 ( PDF; 811 KB, 12 pages accessed at mthz.ub.uni-muenchen.de)
257. ↑ Hans-Theo Wrege : History of the impact of the gospel: experiences, perspectives and possibilities. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1981, ISBN 978-3-5255-6156-0 , pp. 58-59
258. ↑ Jaan Lahe : Gnosis and Judaism: Old Testament and Jewish Motifs in Gnostic Literature and the Problem of Origin of Gnosis. Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies, EJ Brill, Leiden 2011, ISBN 978-9-00420-951-0 , pp. 113-114
259. ^ Nienke Vos, Willemien Otten (Ed.): Demons and the Devil in Ancient and Medieval Christianity. Vigiliae Christianae, Supplements, Vol. 108, EJ Brill, Leiden 2011, ISBN 978-9-0042-0805-6 , pp. 42-43
260. ^ Wilhelm Gemoll (conception), Theresae Aigner (arrangement): Greek-German school and manual dictionary. 10th edition. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-486-00234-1 .
261. ↑ Ludwig Richard Conradi : The service of the good angels and the re-enactments of the fallen, along with biblical pointers with reference to their origin and their fate. International Traktatgesellschaft, Hamburg, Basel a. a. (2nd, revised and enlarged edition) 1898, further editions: 1913 and (300th thousand) 1915, pp. 26–32 ( meaning of the expression "angels" , the angels are real heavenly beings ).
262. ^ Wilhelm Nestle : The crisis of Christianity in the modern world. Its cause, its becoming and its meaning. H. Hannsmann, Stuttgart 1947, p. 89
263. ↑ Menno Aden : The emergence of the synoptic gospels as an answer to the disappointed near expectation theology of Paul. P. 1–5 ( dresaden.de [PDF; 31 kB])
264. ↑ Peter Pilhofer , Eve-Marie Becker (ed.): Biography and personality of Paul. Vol. 187 Scientific studies on the New Testament, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-161-48-662-3 , p. 37 f.
265. ^ William Wrede : Paulus. Gebauer-Schwetschke, Halle as 1904, p. 103 f.
266. ↑ The entire Gospel of John , along with all of the Pauline letters, knows nothing of the parables of Jesus.