Friedrich Wilhelm IV.
Friedrich Wilhelm IV. (Born October 15, 1795 in Berlin , † January 2, 1861 in Potsdam ) was King of Prussia from June 7, 1840 until his death . He came from the Hohenzollern dynasty . During his reign he was confronted with two fundamental upheavals: the industrial revolution and the bourgeois demand for political participation.
The first phase of the king's reign (1840–1848) was initially characterized by concessions (easing of censorship, an amnesty for politically persecuted people and reconciliation with the Catholic population). With these measures, Friedrich Wilhelm intended to undermine the demand for a Prussian constitution. However, this did not succeed and many concessions were withdrawn before the beginning of the revolution of 1848 .
In the second phase of government (1848–1849) the king succeeded in regaining his absolutist position with a strategy of initial restraint. With the rejection of the imperial crown and the military suppression of the uprisings in the Kingdom of Saxony , in the Grand Duchy of Baden and in the Palatinate, he made a decisive contribution to the end of the revolution.
In the third phase of government (1849-1858) he built the state into a constitutional monarchy with a constitution that was enacted according to his ideas and amended several times . During this period he expanded the state territory to include the Hohenzollern Lands and part of the Jadebusen in order to be able to found the Prussian naval port of Wilhelmshaven . Finally, for health reasons, he had to hand over the business of government to the heir to the throne, his younger brother Wilhelm .
The building ensembles of the Berlin-Potsdam residential landscape , the Berlin Museum Island , the cultural landscape on the Upper Middle Rhine Valley and the completed Cologne Cathedral , which were expanded under Friedrich Wilhelm IV, are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Life until the assumption of power
origin
Friedrich Wilhelm was born on October 15, 1795 at 6 a.m. in the Kronprinzenpalais in Berlin and was baptized there on October 28. His father Friedrich Wilhelm III. after the death of grandfather Friedrich Wilhelm II. ascended the Prussian throne on November 16, 1797; His wife Luise became queen and the two-year-old was crown prince .
The first eleven years of his life were characterized by a feeling of familiarity and stability. In contrast to his grandfather, Friedrich Wilhelm's father remained loyal to his wife throughout his life. The close courtly environment described the prince as an artistically gifted and bright, but also disobedient and idiosyncratic child who caused problems for his tutors. Later, in contrast to his taciturn father, Friedrich Wilhelm showed rhetorical skills and was seen by those around him as educated and imaginative, but very inconsistent, inconsistent and inherently impractical.
In addition to the dynasty , the educators had a major influence on Friedrich Wilhelm's understanding of politics. His early childhood fell at a time when the European monarchies were facing the revolutionary challenge from France. Since the French Revolution with the execution of Louis XVI. questioned the dynastic tradition, it created the conditions for Friedrich Wilhelm's later political orientation towards historical continuity and tradition.
education
In early childhood, the mother's trusted ladies-in-waiting, who lived with the family in the Kronprinzenpalais and in Paretz Castle , played a role in the upbringing, namely Countess Voss and Countess Henriette Viereck . With his brother Wilhelm, who was only eighteen months younger, the Crown Prince received the rector of the Pedagogy of the Monastery of Our Dear Women in Magdeburg , Friedrich Delbrück, as educator from 1800 .
Delbrück was influenced by the humane educational concept of the pedagogue Johann Bernhard Basedow , an advocate of philanthropism . According to this educational concept, Delbrück enabled the Crown Prince to develop his individuality. He recognized his artistic talent and appointed a drawing teacher. Despite the enlightenment approach of philanthropinism, Delbrück's concept of upbringing resulted in a post-Enlightenment spirit, the emotional romanticism . The young crown prince's thinking was fundamentally shaped by Novalis ' fragment collection Faith and Love or the King and Queen , published in 1798 . Friedrich Wilhelm is considered to be the first Prussian king since Friedrich II , whose upbringing was no longer in the spirit of the Enlightenment , but was based primarily on teaching Christianity, humanism and classicism .
The lessons in history, geography, physics, Latin, French, English, mathematics, music and drawing given by Delbrück and other private tutors did not reach the level necessary for attending a university, but were limited to real-life material. Delbrück noted in his diary that the Crown Prince took part in the class "in his own way, drawing more than writing". In 1803, French began to be taught, the common language at European royal courts. In later Latin lessons Delbrück aroused the prince's interest in classical antiquity . Delbrück also paid attention to the correct behavior: Although Friedrich Wilhelm III. and Queen Luise seemed to have no objections, Delbriick tried to stop the jumping and romping on the furniture in the castles.
For the military training ordered Friedrich Wilhelm III. two NCOs. On October 15, 1805, his tenth birthday, he was awarded the officer license as a lieutenant in the royal guard. To the consternation of the king and in marked contrast to Wilhelm, the young heir to the throne never developed a talent for military affairs. He never became a staunch soldier, which is why his reputation in the officer corps was far behind that of his brother Wilhelm. As a grown man, he was corpulent and severely nearsighted, traits that made military inspections difficult.
Period of the Napoleonic Wars (1806-1815)
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The first turning point in the life of the Crown Prince he was aware of was the defeat of the Prussian army against the French troops of Napoleon I in the battle of Jena and Auerstedt on October 14, 1806. With the collapse of Prussia, Delbrück's educational concept also changed. He was no longer treated as a child, but as an heir to the throne.
Since there was a risk of capture by the French, the princes were brought from Delbrück to Königsberg on October 17, 1806 , where his parents did not arrive until December 9, 1806. Together they fled from the advancing troops to Memel , where the family had to be content with the living conditions of a merchant's house.
After the collapse of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm's upbringing was more adapted to the requirements of government preparations under pressure from his parents. Delbrück gave Friedrich Wilhelm for the first time lessons with political intent. So he taught that the Russian Tsar Peter III. because of "fickleness" and "indecision", which he also ascribed to the Crown Prince in his diary, fell victim to a political conspiracy within just six months.
The Crown Prince was rather hostile to the Prussian reforms that have now been set in motion with the aim of modernizing the state from within. Friedrich Delbrück had instilled in him a disgust for revolutionaries, so that he had no understanding for Hardenberg's demand that Prussia be repaired through a "revolution from above", namely the Prussian reforms. For Friedrich Wilhelm, the “bureaucratic absolutism of Hardenberg” meant the removal of the “corporate principle” he had advocated. From his point of view, the reforms represented a social rapprochement between Prussia and the conditions of the French Revolution . In addition, there were personal tensions between the Crown Prince and Freiherr vom Stein, who missed the military aspect in the education provided by the philosophical Delbrück. In a letter of complaint to the king, Stein accused Delbrück of bringing up Friedrich Wilhelm in a “feminine way”. In 1809, the King actually replaced Delbrück with Jean Pierre Frédéric Ancillon recommended by von Stein . However, the Crown Prince's contact with Delbrück was never completely cut off after his dismissal.
The ancillon, descended from French Huguenots , was pastor of the Friedrichswerder Church in Berlin and, for religious reasons, encouraged Friedrich Wilhelm in his rejection of the French Revolution. Friedrich Wilhelm became interested in the pietistic awakening idea of the theologian Karl Heinrich Sack .
When Queen Luise died on July 19, 1810, his father allowed the fourteen-year-old to see his deceased mother one last time. He wrote on July 26, 1810: “This is how far I had come when God caused us to suffer the most painful loss that could strike us. He took our inexpressibly adored mother, the beloved queen. "
He felt this second major turning point in his Crown Prince's time as a punishment from God and brought it into direct connection with his perspective on life. Only through a more godly life did he believe that he could pay off his perceived guilt for the death of his mother.
The high point of Friedrich Wilhelm's youth was his participation in the campaigns against Napoleon in the Wars of Liberation of 1813/1814. For his understanding of war, the lines between patriotism and religious zeal became blurred. He saw the conflict as a “crusade” against the ideas of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution that were forcibly imposed by Napoleon . Consequently, Friedrich Wilhelm wrote in his campaign diary about "Satan's (meaning: Napoleon's) sinister hosts". For him, Napoleon as heir to the French Revolution was a divine punishment that must now be brought down.
In countless correspondence from this time there are reports of the Crown Prince about religious experiences that take up the motives of the pietistic awakening movement, including subjective experience of God, power of personal prayer and individual striving for salvation and redemption. Friedrich Wilhelm retained his Francophobia all his life. He even wrote that the subversive spirit was "in the blood" of the French. He later felt that his view was confirmed by the series of revolutions in Paris in 1789, 1830 and 1848 . The rule of Napoleon with its “mixture of absolutist, revolutionary and plebiscitary elements” appeared to him to be a typical product of the French people's soul.
The sight of the battlefield at Großgörschen with 8,500 fallen and wounded Prussian soldiers meant that the later king tried to avoid wars as a political means. The final victory over Napoleonic France in 1815 formed the background of the letter novel The Queen of Borneo , written by Friedrich Wilhelm 1816–1817 .
Rhineland trip (1815)
Friedrich Wilhelm's ideological-aesthetic point of view took shape in July 1815 during his trip to the Rhineland. The Rhine province fell to Prussia only in the same year through the Congress of Vienna . The historic castle landscape along the Upper Middle Rhine Valley awakened the Prussian Crown Prince's enthusiasm for the Middle Ages. As early as 1814, he had the architectural historian Sulpiz Boisserée guided him through the unfinished Cologne Cathedral , construction of which began in 1248 and was discontinued in 1560. In 1815 he visited him again. Friedrich Wilhelm had known about the Gothic architectural style as a national and patriotic symbol since the beginning of the 19th century . For example, he interpreted an idealized conception of the Holy Roman Empire in Cologne Cathedral , which was supposedly supported by shared Christian and monarchical ideas. Friedrich Wilhelm longed for a renewal of the empire that fell in 1806 - at best under his leadership as Roman-German emperor . As crown prince he began to demand the further construction of the Cologne Cathedral, but was only able to realize this after his accession to the throne.
marriage
In order to ensure the continued existence of the Hohenzollern dynasty, King Friedrich Wilhelm III. In 1819 his son went to the Bavarian court for a "bridal show", as a political connection between the central state of Bavaria and the great power of Prussia through marriage was desired by both the Prussian and Bavarian sides. On July 5, 1819, the Crown Prince received the invitation of the Bavarian King Maximilian I Joseph to Baden-Baden , where the Bavarian court stayed for a cure. It was certain that Friedrich Wilhelm III. As the head of the Evangelical Church in Prussia would not agree to a marriage with a Catholic princess and the rapprochement between Bavaria and Prussia seemed to be endangered, King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria promised the Prussian king that one of his daughters would convert to Protestantism in the event of a marriage. The Prussian envoy at the Bavarian court, General Zastrow, assured that Catholicism at the Munich court was “so an object of joke and derision that it could not take root in the heart of the princess. A transfer almost corresponds to their need ”. Only after these assurances approved Friedrich Wilhelm III. the trip to Baden-Baden. However, Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm fell in love with Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria in a Bavarian princess who consistently refused to convert. The Prussian king, for his part, saw himself bound by the Prussian house laws , which explicitly stipulated the obligation to be a Protestant denomination.
The steadfastness with which Elisabeth refused to convert to Protestantism increased Friedrich Wilhelm's esteem for Elisabeth. In her he saw a person who, like him, believed her faith to be more important than anything else. The Protestant Crown Prince saw a marriage as an opportunity to reduce denominational tensions in the Rhineland ( Cologne mixed marriages ). It was only after four years of diplomatic efforts on both sides that it was possible to find a compromise formula, according to which Elizabeth was initially able to maintain her denomination, but undertook to take lessons in the Protestant doctrines and, moreover, promised restraint in practicing Catholicism.
On November 16, 1823, Friedrich Wilhelm and Elisabeth of Bavaria were married according to the Catholic rite per procurationem in the court chapel of the Munich residence , then on November 29 by Bishop Eylert in the Berlin palace chapel. On the occasion of their entry into Berlin, Friedrich Wilhelm III. the same protocol that his own wife Luise had received in 1793: The city magistrate had to receive them, a gate of honor had to be built, the city was to be ceremoniously illuminated and people in need were to be fed in all "poor institutions". It was not until 1829 that Elisabeth voluntarily converted to the Reformed Confession of the Hohenzollern - a step that cost her a great deal of effort. According to all reports, the marriage between Friedrich Wilhelm and Elisabeth was happy. With her calm and steadfast nature she was an important emotional “anchor” for the restless Friedrich Wilhelm. After a miscarriage in 1828, Elisabeth could no longer have children. Friedrich Wilhelm III. appointed his second-born, the younger brother of Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince Wilhelm , to be the successor to the future King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. After Friedrich Wilhelm IV ascended to the throne, Wilhelm carried the title of Prince of Prussia. As Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm temporarily exercised the purely representative function of governor in Pomerania .
Corporations of the Crown Prince
As an intellectually interested and eloquent personality, Friedrich Wilhelm liked to surround himself with interesting people, especially during his time as Crown Prince. Important artists, architects, writers, scientists, professors and musicians were invited to the evening parties of the Crown Prince couple. There were usually lectures or lectures in which Friedrich Wilhelm listened and at the same time drew on a sketch pad. A frequent and particularly welcome guest was the famous natural scientist Alexander von Humboldt , whom he had met in 1805 - shortly after Humboldt's expedition to South America. Friedrich Wilhelm particularly valued the scholar's polemical storytelling. It was not without good reason that the physicist Francois Arago , a close friend of Humboldt, described him as the “greatest disgrace I know”.
In 1810 at the latest, Friedrich Wilhelm made the acquaintance of the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel , whom he also invited to his evening parties. Schinkel had a decisive influence on the architectural and political-aesthetic views of the Crown Prince. Both worked particularly closely together on the drafts of Charlottenhof Palace , Friedrich Wilhelm's first own residence (construction period: 1826–1828), where summer evening parties took place until the 1930s. There he was still able to pursue his interests as king, free from government business, and many of his drawings were made there. He referred to Charlottenhof as his personal “Arcadia” after the home of the Greek messenger of the gods Hermes . With its Doric portico, the castle deliberately alluded to ancient country villas, which had to be less representative as they served as private retreats.
His financial generosity resulted in substantial debts during the Crown Prince's time. Friedrich Wilhelm III. did not want to involve the Crown Prince in state affairs, so that he withdrew into private life and could not gain any political experience.
Trip to Italy (1828)
Due to the lively interest in classical antiquity, Italy was a main destination for the educational trip that is common for educated Germans. After his father had refused the Crown Prince in 1818 such a trip because he feared that the rich cultural heritage of Italy could lead Friedrich Wilhelm to unbridled behavior or intellectual heights, he gave him permission for a ten-week trip in 1828. He expected sobriety and restraint from his heir to the throne. The Crown Prince traveled to Genoa , then to the sights of Tuscany and finally to Rome . In Berlin and Potsdam he had carefully examined Roman architecture , in which he believed he recognized some of his own unrealized building projects. In retrospect, he kept talking about suffering from “Rome fever”.
With the architectural suggestions of Rome the political concept of Friedrich Wilhelm was influenced at the same time. The Prussian ambassador in Rome, Christian Karl Josias von Bunsen , who later became an important confidante of Friedrich Wilhelm, turned the Crown Prince's gaze primarily to the early Christian basilicas. Under his influence, Friedrich Wilhelm saw the return to early Christian-medieval principles as a weapon against the moral decline of the 19th century, from which revolutions would result. He saw basilicas as a symbolic image of the Christian state he advocated. On his return trip, Friedrich Wilhelm visited Naples , Ravenna and Venice before returning to Prussia in December 1828.
King Friedrich Wilhelm IV.
Pre-March period (1840–1848)
Change of government (1840)
Friedrich Wilhelm IV's accession to the throne on June 7, 1840 was associated with great expectations in the liberal and national camp, which the new king fulfilled in the first six months of his reign. The king began his reign with a policy of reconciliation.
As early as July 2, 1840, he allowed Ernst Moritz Arndt to resume teaching at the University of Bonn . As a result of the Karlovy Vary resolutions of 1819, Arndt lost his office in November 1820 because of national and allegedly democratic statements. Although a judicial process had remained without result, it was under Friedrich Wilhelm III. refused permission to give lectures again. In October 1840, Friedrich Wilhelm IV ended the police supervision that had existed against the nationally-minded pedagogue and gymnastics founder Friedrich Ludwig Jahn since 1825. Two years later he ordered the lifting of the gymnastics ban. The military reformer Hermann von Boyen returned to his post as Minister of War in March 1841, which he had not held since 1820. The Brothers Grimm , released in Göttingen, were appointed to the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences at the invitation of the king . Alexander von Humboldt rose to the State Council. Due to an amnesty announced on August 10, 1840, all “political criminals” were released. Politically motivated investigations and legal proceedings were initially canceled. The state police mandate of the ministerial commission , which was dissolved by order of the king on October 6, 1840, was thus omitted .
These concessions meant that the liberals initially overlooked the fact that Friedrich Wilhelm IV was by no means one of their own. From the king's point of view, the reconciliation policy was intended to restore trust in a medieval feudal relationship of loyalty between the Prussian people and the monarch, making the liberal reform of the state based on the constitutional-parliamentary model of France superfluous. He derived his close ties to his people from God's grace , which gave him "holy insight into the needs of his subjects":
"There are things that you only know as a king, that I myself did not know as a crown prince and have only now experienced as king"
From this the king drew the conclusion that the mystical- transcendent powers bestowed on him by God would intuitively make him do the right thing. Any restriction of his de facto absolutist power seemed to him an irresponsible hindrance to his God-given mission.
The king's view of a monarchy shaped by divine right was set out in the writings of the poet Novalis . Novalis' state-theoretical collection of writings, Faith and Love, or the King and Queen , published in 1798, contains fundamental approaches that shaped the thinking of the king. So the poet spoke of the monarch as a "higher-born man". The king saw himself not only as the father of the country at the head of his state, but also as a “servant of a divine work of salvation - committed solely to his conscience and to the Most High”. He longed for the world and values of the early Christian Middle Ages, in which prince and people lived together in harmony and in the awareness of their assigned rights and duties. In his mind, rulers and rulers formed an organically grown family that was not directly connected to one another through coercion and obedience, but rather through feelings of mutual friendship, love and loyalty. Friedrich Wilhelm did not want to disregard what he saw as the historically proven rights of state intermediate power in an absolutist sense. Rather, he wanted to emphasize the juxtaposition of crown and estates. He saw a first, symbolic chance for this in the so-called tribute to the standing.
Tribute (1840)
The official ceremony of taking office was the homage of the estates and subjects. At its core, the homage was an oath that representatives swore before their monarch on behalf of the entire people. Like his father in 1798, Friedrich Wilhelm IV limited himself to homage festivities only in Königsberg and Berlin . After his accession to the throne, Friedrich Wilhelm had decreed “from the estates of the Kingdom of Prussia (East Prussia, West Prussia and Litthauen) and from those of the Grand Duchy of Posen on September 10th. J. in Königsberg, but from the stands in all other parts of the country on October 15th. J. to pay homage in Berlin ”. While the corporate representatives from the Prussian provinces outside the German Confederation ( Prussia , the Kingdom and Posen , the Grand Duchy ) were received in Königsberg, the corporate representatives from the provinces within the German Confederation ( Brandenburg , Pomerania , Saxony , Silesia , Rhine Province ) appeared in Berlin and Westphalia ).
At the end of August 1840, Friedrich Wilhelm IV traveled to Königsberg, accompanied by a large retinue of adjutants, court officials and members of the royal family. Church bells and cannon thunder rang out during the festive entry. Poems of praise for the ruler were read out. The ceremony in Königsberg consisted of two separate events. First, on September 9, 1840, the representatives of the Prussian provinces met to present the king with a memorial and then to be endowed by the king with the traditional privileges. Friedrich Wilhelm took part in public feasts, concerts and regattas were held. The actual oath of the estates of East Prussia, West Prussia and Poznan took place the next day. The king went to the courtyard , where he sat on a throne with a canopy. Sitting there, he commented on the memorial that he had received the day before and that was intended to remind him of his father's constitutional promises. Friedrich Wilhelm had actually briefly considered announcing the early convocation of imperial estates in Königsberg. However, his conservative advisors had initially dissuaded him from this course. Nonetheless, in an improvised speech to the crowd of 30,000, the king pointed out the institution of the provincial parliaments and the speedy resolution of the constitutional question that he had planned. After the king had accepted the oath of the representatives of the estates, he promised to be “a just judge, a faithful, careful, merciful prince and a Christian king”.
The fact that Friedrich Wilhelm IV gave public speeches was something incredibly new and unusual for his contemporaries, because no Prussian king had addressed the people so directly before him; his father was known for his lack of words. After Friedrich Wilhelm IV. It was only Kaiser Wilhelm II. Who held many public speeches again. Friedrich Wilhelm's speeches were more like pious declamations than political speeches; Friedrich von Gagern mocked them as mere “pastors sermons”. For the king, their purpose was to establish a closer connection between monarch and people, a sacred unity (corpus mysticum) , which he compared with the body of Christ (corpus Christi mysticum) that exists between the parishes. The Berlin vernacular called his new king, unlike his father, the "blessed", soon the "talkative".
On October 15, 1840, the five days of festivities began in Berlin. On this occasion, the king symbolically emphasized the differences in class: while princes, noblemen and knights (i.e. the nobility) were allowed to pay homage in the Great Hall of Columns of the Berlin Palace , the king left the bourgeois representatives of the cities and districts two hours in the autumn rain before the special in the pleasure garden Waiting for the open staircase in the hall. The Lord Mayor of Berlin was only allowed to climb up so far that he could speak to the king from below.
Constitutional question
In the course of his reconciliation policy, Friedrich Wilhelm IV was definitely interested in a solution to the Prussian constitutional question . Friedrich Wilhelm IV undertook concrete constitutional plans. The central philosophical point of this was the doctrine of the so-called organic corporate state , which was based on philosophers such as Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Friedrich Schlegel . As early as 1805 Schlegel noted in the manuscript of his “Lecture on Universal History”: “The only permanent constitution is the estates, tempered by priests and nobility, it is also the oldest and best”.
According to the “political romantics”, the class division takes into account the natural inequality of humans. The individual should, in his place assigned by God, fulfill the tasks and duties that serve the good of society as a whole. When it came to the Prussian constitutional question, Friedrich Wilhelm IV was not aiming for the realization of a constitutional monarchy , but for a state led by Christian estates. Only two months after the end of the tribute to the state he gave this to the President of the Province of Prussia :
“I feel entirely by God's grace and with His help I will feel so until the end. Without envy, I leave glamor and cunning to so-called constitutional princes, who through a piece of paper (meaning: constitution) have become a fiction, an abstract concept for the people. "
In the memorandum Four Questions Answered by an East Prussian , the Königsberg doctor Johann Jacoby reminded the King of the unfulfilled constitutional promise of Friedrich Wilhelm III. and called for the election of a Prussian parliament. The king then initiated a trial for "lese majesty" and "high treason" against Jacoby. In Prussian law, high treason was punishable by death. However, when the Higher Regional Court in Königsberg declared that it was not responsible and the Berlin Superior Court acquitted Jacoby, the angry king intervened in the process. At his pressure Jacoby was sentenced to two years imprisonment; However, he appealed and was then acquitted once more by the Berlin Court of Appeal.
As a counterpoint to all parliamentary influenced people's representatives addressed Friedrich Wilhelm IV. His attention to the established already in 1823 the provincial estates , the representative bodies of the eight Prussian provinces.
Foreign policy
Rhine crisis
The threat of war with the Kingdom of France overshadowed Friedrich Wilhelm's accession to the throne. Since fleeing Napoleon at the latest, he personally felt strongly Francophobic feelings and a tendency to make German-national statements. In the "King of the French" Louis-Philippe I , who came to the throne through the July Revolution of 1830 , he saw an illegitimate usurper from the ducal house of Orléans , who only belonged to a younger branch line, but not the older and therefore enthroned main line of the Bourbons , who had ruled France from 1589. Shortly after taking office in 1840, there was a serious diplomatic crisis with France, the so-called Rhine crisis . The trauma of the Battle of Waterloo , perceived as "shameful" in France, was to be erased with the restoration of a "natural" Rhine border to the east.
Friedrich Wilhelm demanded that the German Confederation must be organized more effectively in order to be able to counter the French aggression in the West. In fact, in 1841/1842 the Bundestag decided to build the federal fortresses of Rastatt and Ulm - defenses against the Kingdom of France. At that time, however, there was no longer any acute risk from France. King Louis-Philippe I had refused troop reinforcements and, after the resignation of his Minister Adolphe Thiers, had come closer to Prussia. At the Bundestag in 1841/1842, Friedrich Wilhelm Vienna promised to grant the military protection of the Habsburg kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia . In return, Austria granted Berlin supreme command over northern German contingents. This rough territorial delimitation of spheres of influence of the two great powers of the German Confederation was intended to avoid a direct confrontation. During the Rhine Crisis, Friedrich Wilhelm intended to combine national sentiments with loyalty to the monarchy. For this purpose he gave Nikolaus Becker , the poet of the patriotic Rhine song , in which it was said “they shouldn't have it, the free German Rhine”, 1000 thalers.
Relations with Austria and Russia
In terms of foreign policy, the king was interested in close cooperation with Austria, with which Prussia remained connected through the Holy Alliance . The monarchs of the European powers represented in this alliance saw themselves as the fathers of a “Christian family” who had to help each other to maintain peace and justice. Until it broke up in the Crimean War , the Holy Alliance secured peace in Europe for 40 years. The rivalry between Prussia and Austria or the German dualism , however, was not overcome. In 1842, for example, Friedrich Wilhelm brought the work of the federal central authority co-founded by the Austrian State Chancellor Metternich to a standstill to enforce the Karlsbad resolutions . However, the similarities between Berlin, Vienna and Saint Petersburg made it possible in 1846 to agree to take action against the Polish national movement. In that year, the Free City of Krakow , which in 1815 had not been awarded to any of the three partitioning powers, started a new uprising that also affected other Polish areas. With the consent of the Russian Tsar and the Prussian King, Austria then annexed Krakow.
Religious politics
In contrast to all of his predecessors since Friedrich II. , Who were in the tradition of the Enlightenment , Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Was deeply religious. Influenced by the Romanticism and the Pietistic awakening movement , he had a “Christian state” in mind in the sense of Friedrich Julius Stahl or Karl Ludwig von Haller . Only Christianity can reverse secularization , increasing materialism and other processes of modernization that are viewed as harmful and save its subjects from revolutionary utopias. For Friedrich Wilhelm religion and politics were inextricably linked.
In contrast to his father, he was sympathetic to Catholicism . After the outrage over the arrest of the Archbishop of Cologne Clemens August Droste zu Vischering in the reign of Friedrich Wilhelm III. Friedrich Wilhelm IV was keen to reconcile his Catholic subjects with the Prussian state. Under Friedrich Wilhelm III. In 1825 the mixed marriage law created a conflict with the Catholic Church . While Prussian law required children to adopt their father's religion, Roman Catholic teaching required that the Protestant partner sign up to raise the children as Catholics. The Archbishop of Cologne, Clemens August Droste zu Vischering, and the Archbishop of Posen and Gnesen, Martin von Dunin , disregarded Prussian law in this area and were arrested as a result.
In order to achieve reconciliation with the Catholic population, Friedrich Wilhelm IV approved the establishment of a Cologne Cathedral Building Association in 1840 . In 1842 he toured the provinces of Rhineland and Westphalia . The symbolic highlight of this visitation trip was the laying of the foundation stone for the completion of the Cologne Cathedral on September 4, 1842. Half of the financing for this came from the Prussian state treasury. Friedrich Wilhelm IV appeared together with the Archbishop of Cologne, Johannes von Geissel , during the cathedral building festival . However , Friedrich Wilhelm did not live to see the completion of the Gothic cathedral in 1880.
For negotiations with the Roman Curia , the king announced in June 1840 that he would set up a department for Catholic affairs in the Ministry of Culture , which would consist exclusively of Catholic councils. In addition, the Prussian government gave up its mixed marriage laws and guaranteed free communication between the Prussian bishops and the Vatican. As ultramontan remote and imprisonment bishops of Cologne and Posen taken, Clemens August Droste zu Vischering and Marcin Dunin , were released. The dispute between the Roman Catholic Church and the Prussian state was over for the time being. The self-confidence of the Prussian Catholics was thereby significantly strengthened, which was shown in the Trier pilgrimage in 1844 : Over half a million believers made a pilgrimage to Trier Cathedral , where a relic of Christ , the holy skirt , that was considered to be miraculous was exhibited .
With the founding of the Evangelical Church in Prussia in 1817 , in which Calvinists and Lutherans were united, Friedrich Wilhelm's father had created an institution for all Protestants in his kingdom that was directly dependent on the sovereign as the summus episcopus . In response to this, the so-called Old Lutherans formed in 1830 . They claimed to represent the “real” Lutheran Church and as a result were exposed to government prosecution (imprisonment, prohibition of organization, violent interruption of church services).
Friedrich Wilhelm lifted the prohibition of the old Lutheran church formation, released pastors and granted corporation rights with a general concession of July 23, 1845 . With restrictions (churches without towers and bells) he allowed the construction of church buildings for the Old Lutherans. The constitutional principle that he had introduced at the state level after the revolution of 1848 was not extended to the Protestant church. Friedrich Wilhelm IV installed a so-called Oberkirchenrat , with which the authoritarian principle of the royal church regiment was upheld. Attempts to restore the unity of all denominations failed. Only with the Anglican Church was there a limited cooperation in 1845 with the establishment of a common diocese in Jerusalem .
Silesian weaver revolt (1844)
First assassination attempt (1844)
The former mayor of Storkow , Heinrich Ludwig Czech , carried out a pistol attack on Friedrich Wilhelm IV and his wife on the portal of the Berlin Palace on July 26, 1844 . The first bullet, weakened in its penetration power by the cloak and overcoat, only caused a slight bruise on the king's chest. The second bullet penetrated the wooden frame of the carriage, just above the head of Elisabeth, whose hat was hit.
As mayor of Storkow, Czech had resigned due to conflicts with the city councilors and the district administrator, in which he had accused them of corruption, but then demanded employment in the royal service. This was denied to him, which is why he felt that he was being treated unfairly. Czech then intensified into the delusion that the Prussian monarch was behind this process. Without any further employment or pension claims, without the possibility of complaining to the king about his treatment, he had decided to commit the assassination.
The assassination initially generated public sympathy for the Prussian monarch, although it was assumed that Czech would be spared the death penalty due to his broken psyche. However, he was sentenced to death and executed on December 14, 1844 in Spandau. Frederick William IV, contrary to the opinion of his ministers, would have been inclined to pardon Czech if he had shown repentance. Czech, however, waived a petition for clemency. With the execution, Friedrich Wilhelm gambled away sympathies, and numerous mocking poems and caricatures of the king made the rounds.
Relationship to the industrial revolution
During the reign of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The Ruhr area , Silesia and Berlin slowly developed into centers of early industrialization in Prussia. This development had previously been hampered by the protectionism of the German small and medium-sized states. It was not until the German Customs Union , which had existed since 1834, to create a uniform economic area in the German Confederation , excluding Austria . To this end, the infrastructure was expanded, starting with the construction of roads and canals, which was driven forward. Above all, however, the emerging railway network contributed to the boom in Prussian coal mining, the textile industry and mechanical engineering. Despite his politically backward-looking stance, Friedrich Wilhelm, even as Crown Prince, sympathized with the technological progress brought about by the industrial revolution. While his father stayed away from the inauguration festivities of the first Prussian railway line in 1838 due to illness , he enthusiastically took part in the opening journey of the locomotive from Berlin to Potsdam. On the occasion of the trip, he is said to have said: "This cart, which rolls through the world, no longer stops a human arm."
As king, he used government bonds to promote the expansion of the railway network, for example that of the Eastern Railway between Berlin and Königsberg. The financing of the Eastern Railway led to the convening of the United State Parliament . How important the king was in promoting the railway network is shown by the fact that he allowed himself to be glorified on the triumphal gate in Potsdam. In the pictorial program of the relief decoration, allegories of the railroad and telegraphy appear on the reverse . This is an allusion to the first section of the Prussian Eastern Railway, completed in 1851. The King personally used the railway as the preferred mode of transport because of its speed and convenience. Sometimes he traveled the route between his residences in Berlin and Potsdam several times a day in an extra train.
Because the King wanted to transform Prussia from an agrarian state into an industrial state, his building projects were intended to promote industrial development. In 1842, the king entrusted the locomotive manufacturer August Borsig with the difficult task of starting the fountain system in front of Sanssouci Palace , which had never worked before, using a steam engine . All summer long, the iron foundry was so busy making the pipes that no other orders could be accepted. In October 1842, the 81.4 hp and thus the largest steam engine built in Germany was inaugurated. The Borsig royal administration announced that the steam engine house had been completed "to the greatest satisfaction of His Majesty the King". The king also maintained personal contacts with Borsig. On the occasion of the completion of the 500th locomotive, Friedrich Wilhelm IV allowed himself to be guided through the factory premises by the factory owner in April 1854. For the "patriotic pioneering act" - according to the king - of defeating an English locomotive in a race, he awarded Borsig the Order of the Red Eagle .
However, the industrial revolution also went hand in hand with social tensions, to which the king did not respond with any social policy worth mentioning. Since the emerging industrial workers were not yet organized in unions, they were exposed to the arbitrariness of the factory owners and thus often inhuman working and living conditions. In front of the Hamburger Tor in Berlin, 2500 people lived in only 400 rooms. 35% of all Berlin apartments consisted of just one room in the 1850s. The only socio-political measure taken by the king consisted of donations for civil-private social associations. In 1844 he made 15,000 thalers available to the association for the benefit of the working class . At the same time, the king issued a General Prussian Industrial Code in 1845 , which included a strict ban on strikes. Anyone who agreed to stop working with others in order to induce the state or employers to “make certain acts or concessions” was threatened with imprisonment of up to one year. In his class conception, Friedrich Wilhelm wanted to use such a policy to prevent the third class from breaking up, the bourgeoisie on the one hand and the factory workers on the other.
Friedrich Wilhelm is the ideal addressee of Bettina von Arnim's socially critical works This Book Belongs to the King (1843) and Conversations with Daemons. The second part of the Book of Kings (1852). When the king took office, Bettina von Arnim felt obliged to urge him to break away from his conservative advisory group and to seek direct cooperation between the monarchy and the people on a constitutional basis. She envisioned a kind of social royalty. In 1841 she received permission to dedicate a book to the king. In the work This book belongs to the king , the social grievances of Berlin caused by urbanization were described. However, the monarch is said to have just leafed through a copy sent to the king, as Alexander von Humboldt noted. Ultimately, Bettina's endeavor was in vain and did not attract Friedrich Wilhelm's attention.
The First United State Parliament (1847)
The revolution of 1848/1849
The fall of the French July monarchy on February 24, 1848 ushered in a revolutionary movement across Europe. Friedrich Wilhelm IV's first reaction was to write to Queen Victoria of Great Britain , Tsar Nicholas I and the Austrian State Chancellor Metternich . He proposed to them a bond of solidarity. The king also sent his confidante Leopold von Gerlach to Copenhagen and Joseph von Radowitz to Vienna in order to deepen cooperation with the courts there. Second, the king called for a congress of the German states. Radowitz negotiated with Metternich that the congress should meet on March 25 in Dresden. By discussing a reform of the German Confederation, the revolutionary feelings of the population should be appeased. Before Friedrich Wilhelm IV could implement his plans, however, he was overwhelmed by the events of the revolution. The news of the resignation of Austrian State Chancellor Klemens Wenzel Lothar von Metternich due to protests in Vienna reached the Prussian king the following day, March 14, 1848. In a letter, Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Metternich shared his outrage over the revolution in the Austrian Empire :
“Who doesn't exclaim: What a man [meaning: Metternich]! and what a time that the man cannot stand! "
Berlin barricade uprising (March 18-19, 1848)
The fighting could even be heard in the Berlin Palace and, as suggested by a series of diary entries from the monarch's immediate environment, supposedly brought the king to the brink of a nervous breakdown. However, this assessment is controversial in research. In a diary entry, the diplomat and chronicler Karl August Varnhagen von Ense, loyal to the monarchy, noted : “On the night of March 19, when things were getting worse and worse and seemed to be very desperate, the king fell back into his armchair, raised eyes and hands to heaven and cried weeping: O God, O God, have you left me completely. ”The historian David E. Barclay, on the other hand, considers a nervous breakdown of the king to be rather unlikely. Certainly the king was urged to make a wide variety of decisions by countless advisors, officers, court officials, professors and local politicians during these hours, but - according to Barclay - he showed more self-control and calm than Prince Wilhelm or the State Chancellor Ernst von Bodelschwingh the Elder .
Although the Berlin barricade fight, with 300 dead demonstrators, was one of the unrest with the most losses in the March Revolution, the king rejected all responsibility and instead spread the rumor of a foreign conspiracy in the manifesto “To my dear Berliners”: “A bunch of villains, mostly consisting of strangers, [...] have become the ghastly authors of bloodshed ”.
Today's historical research does not ascribe any significance to such an assignment of guilt. However, Friedrich Wilhelm's correspondence with Christian Karl Josias von Bunsen , the Prussian ambassador in London, shows that the king classified the situation as a coup or a conspiracy, but not a revolution. The king claimed in the letters that weeks before the barricade fight, the “most hideous servants”, 10,000 to 20,000 men, had been brought to Berlin as planned and kept hidden from the police until the “big day”. He did not want to admit that his own people protested his policies.
National-liberal course change
On March 21, 1848, the king or his camarilla initiated an apparent change of course in which Friedrich Wilhelm IV placed himself at the head of the revolution. The king announced that he would support the formation of an all-German parliament. In truth, he lacked the means to pursue a policy independent of the citizens' movement. On March 21, 1848, the king rode through the city wearing a black, red and gold armband. He also had an officer dressed in civilian clothes carry a black, red and gold flag ahead. Again and again the king stopped to assert his alleged support for German unity in improvised speeches.
On March 22, 1848, he secretly wrote to his brother, the Prince of Prussia :
“Yesterday I had to put on the Reichsfarben voluntarily in order to save everything. If the throw is successful; [...], I put it down again! "
As a result, Friedrich Wilhelm was determined from the start to counter the revolution with a counter-revolution if the balance of power changed. In new publications (for example by David Barclay and by Rüdiger Hachtmann ) the well-considered calculation of Friedrich Wilhelm in the revolution is emphasized, which allowed him to regain absolutist power in the long run if he temporarily retreated.
government
On March 29, 1848, Friedrich Wilhelm IV set up a liberal government around Prime Minister Ludolf Camphausen and Finance Minister David Hansemann . As a counterpoint to the Camphausen government, the king founded the “ministre occulte” on March 30, 1848, a secret subsidiary cabinet. This courtly interest group, to which the general Leopold von Gerlach , his brother, judge and publicist Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach , the squire Ludwig von Massow , the general Ludwig Gustav von Thile and the count Anton zu Stolberg-Wernigerode belonged, spoke to the king for a short time Abdication ideas. Friedrich Wilhelm IV's abdication would have deprived them of any political influence. The work of the "Kamarilla" is documented in the estate of Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach in the Gerlach archive at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. The conservative theorists Heinrich Leo and Friedrich Julius Stahl were the initiators of the “Kamarilla”, and Otto von Bismarck and Hans-Hugo von Kleist-Retzow joined the group towards the end of 1848 .
Prussian National Assembly
The second United State Parliament, convened by Friedrich Wilhelm on April 2, 1848, announced elections that resulted in a Prussian National Assembly . On May 22, 1848, the National Assembly met in the White Hall of the Berlin Palace . Some MPs had requested the Singakademie building , the meeting place for the assembly, as the opening location. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, however, insisted that the members of parliament appear at his place, not the other way around. Friedrich Wilhelm IV announced to the Berlin National Assembly that a draft constitution would be submitted in writing, which was published on the same day, but the real balance of power still spoke in favor of the king's dominant position in the state. The draft constitution stipulated that the army and bureaucracy were bound to the king and not to the national assembly. Friedrich Wilhelm IV had the draft constitution, which was already very accommodating to him, further restricted by revisions until June 1848 and codified his view that he was “king by the grace of God” and that the constitution merely represented an “agreement between the crown and the people”. A primacy of popular sovereignty over the monarchical principle had not come about.
Denmark campaign
for Germany policy in this phase see → To my people and to the German nation
Counter-revolution
Malmo Armistice
The advance of the federal troops to Jutland , which was under Prussian leadership, provoked protests from Great Britain and Russia. Both great powers wanted to keep the accesses to the Baltic Sea under the control of Denmark. From their point of view, the great power of Prussia or even a possible united Germany appeared as a threat to the European balance of power. If it did not stop fighting, Russia even threatened Prussia with military intervention. Under pressure from the great powers and with Swedish mediation, Friedrich Wilhelm IV concluded the Armistice in Malmö on August 26, 1848 - without consulting the Frankfurt National Assembly . On September 16, 1848, the majority of the MPs in Frankfurt am Main approved the decision of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The Malmö armistice was recognized, which, however, cost the National Assembly the support of large sections of the population throughout the German-speaking area.
Appointment of Count Brandenburg
While the Schleswig-Holstein uprising marked a turning point in favor of Friedrich Wilhelm IV in foreign policy terms , this happened in domestic policy through the debates of the Prussian National Assembly. After rejecting the Camphausen government's draft constitution on June 20, 1848, left forces began to assert themselves more and more clearly. The associated rapprochement with the Berlin people's movement corresponded on the other hand with a break with the crown, which culminated in the fact that on October 31, 1848 the nobility , titles and orders were to be abolished. The words “by God's grace” were deleted from the document on October 12, 1848, and the king's divine right was openly questioned. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Was forced to strike back politically. On November 1, 1848, the king appointed his uncle Friedrich Wilhelm Graf von Brandenburg , an illegitimate son of King Friedrich Wilhelm II , as the Prussian Prime Minister. The Count of Brandenburg came from the conservative military camp. Unlike previous prime ministers of the revolutionary era, Brandenburg was closer to the king than to the Prussian National Assembly.
The Prussian National Assembly protested against the establishment of Brandenburg and on November 2, 1848, sent twenty-five deputies to the king. The monarch was not impressed by this and broke off the audience after the deputies had read out their request. On this occasion the doctor Johann Jacoby is said to have shouted to the king the sentence that has become famous in Prussia: "This is the misfortune of kings that they do not want to hear the truth".
End of the National Assembly and an imposed constitution
Under the pretext of removing the Prussian National Assembly from the pressure of Berliner Straße, the king ordered the delegates to be relocated to Brandenburg an der Havel by a decree of November 9, 1848 and adjourned until November 27, 1848. Just a few hours later, Count Brandenburg appeared before the members of the National Assembly and announced the royal decree. The majority of the MPs refused to bow down, but in the early afternoon of November 10, 1848, the king had General Friedrich von Wrangel march through the Brandenburg Gate at the head of 13,000 soldiers and sixty guns . The soldiers ended the session of the National Assembly. As the historian Heinrich August Winkler writes, this approach was " confusingly similar to a coup d'etat ". Wrangel met no resistance. This was due to a revolutionary disappointment of the craftsmen and industrial workers. The revolution hadn't changed anything about their economic hardship, which had led to isolated riots such as the Berlin armory storm of June 14, 1848. Although the bourgeois middle and upper classes sympathized with artisans and industrial workers, they did not want to tolerate violent social upheaval; she sided with the king instead. On November 13, 1848, the Berlin vigilante group was disarmed.
On December 5, 1848, the king first had the Prussian National Assembly in Brandenburg an der Havel dissolved and then issued a constitution. In this way, the dissolved National Assembly could no longer contest the constitution imposed by the king by voting. Friedrich Wilhelm IV internally refused to introduce a constitution at all, but the majority of his ministry urged him to take such a step in order to prevent new protests. Prussia was transformed into a so-called constitutional monarchy , which it remained until 1918. The Prussian constitution provided for a freely elected parliament , but largely left power with the monarch. The military remained subordinate to the king only. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Received an absolute right of veto, with which he could block resolutions of the parliament. Above all, the constitution stipulated that it was "subject to revision by chambers to be appointed". This was linked to the expectation that a conservative majority in the planned two-chamber parliament would be able to pass amendments to the constitution in favor of the king in the future.
Emperor election
Friedrich Wilhelm IV, however, removed the ground from the revolution not only at the Prussian level, but also at the all-German level: the goal of the Frankfurt National Assembly was to found a German nation-state. At its head, according to the constitution passed on March 28, 1849, should be an "Kaiser of the Germans". At this point in time, the Habsburg Franz Joseph I of Austria, unlike Friedrich Wilhelm IV, was no longer an option. On November 27, 1848, the Austrian Prime Minister, Prince Felix zu Schwarzenberg, announced that the Habsburg multi-ethnic state represented an indivisible political unit. This was incompatible with Article 2 of the Paulskirche constitution of March 28, 1849, in which it said:
“If a German country and a non-German country have the same head of state, the German country should have its own constitution, government and administration that is separate from the non-German country. Only German citizens may be appointed to the government and administration of the German state. "
In Prussia, unlike in the Habsburg monarchy, the population was mainly composed of a German-speaking population. For this reason, the Frankfurt National Assembly elected Friedrich Wilhelm IV on March 28, 1849 as "Emperor of the Germans". The so propagated small German solution would have pushed Austria out of the German state.
Rejection of the imperial dignity
On April 3, 1849, the Imperial Deputation of the Frankfurt National Assembly proposed the Imperial Crown to the King. The emperor's deputation was only allowed into the castle through the delivery entrance. Friedrich Wilhelm IV read a speech written by the Prime Minister of Brandenburg, which was intended to intend a conditional acceptance of the crown, but accentuated the text in such a way that the emperor's deputies had to read out a rejection. The king later justified himself in writing to a close confidante as follows:
“I do not accept the crown. […] All ministers know, but they think I am hypocritical. And I can call on God as a witness that I don't want it, for the simple reason that Austria will then leave Germany. "
The exclusion of Austria would have ruined Friedrich Wilhelm IV's vision of the renewal of a Holy Roman Empire of the German nation , since Austria had been part of this empire for centuries. Acceptance of the imperial dignity would also have meant an open snub against Austria in terms of foreign policy and thus probably provoked war. Even more important was that, in the view of the king, as before 1806, the dignity of emperors could only be granted by the princes or a college of electors . As a representative of the monarchical principle of legitimation, he detested the idea of a unilateral grab for power that would have violated the historical rights of other German monarchs. The crown offered by representatives of the people was unacceptable to Friedrich Wilhelm, who in his monarchical self-image was based on the traditional idea of divine grace and rejected the idea of popular sovereignty. In a letter dated December 13, 1848, Friedrich Wilhelm IV had indicated to the Prussian ambassador to England, Christian Karl Josias Freiherr von Bunsen :
“Such an imaginary hoop (meaning: the crown of the Frankfurt National Assembly) baked from dirt and Latvians (ie clay) should a legitimate King of Prussia put up with? [...] I'll tell you straight out: If the thousand-year crown of the German nation, which has rested for 42 years, is to be awarded again, it will be me and my kind who will award it. "
The king considered the voluntary consent of the princes and free cities to be indispensable, but the election by the people's representatives was only a desirable addition. Internally, he justified his personal refusal by saying that he did not want to accept a “crown out of the gutter”, although he dubbed this crown in a letter to King Ernst August I of Hanover as a “dog collar” that would tie him to the constitution of the National Assembly .
Introduction of three-class voting rights
The rejection of the imperial dignity by Friedrich Wilhelm IV caused violent protests in large parts of Germany, which are summarized under the term of the imperial constitution campaign . This mood was followed by the Second Chamber of Parliament, which the imposed Prussian constitution provided for. The later Prussian House of Representatives emerged from it. On April 21, 1849, the Prussian Second Chamber recognized the Frankfurt Paulskirche constitution of March 28, 1849. This was made possible by the universal suffrage in Article 61 of the Prussian Constitution, whereby liberal and democratic forces prevailed. Since this was incompatible with the king's claims to power, he dissolved the Second Chamber on April 27, 1849. On May 30, 1849, he introduced the so-called three -class electoral law for the second chamber by emergency ordinance . This unequal census voting system , which was based on tax income, was intended to establish a conservative majority over the long term.
Dresden May Uprising
In the king's understanding the revolution had a diabolical origin. Therefore, Friedrich Wilhelm IV interpreted his successes over the revolution as a sign of divine assistance. From his point of view, God had determined him to deal the fatal blow to the revolution not only in Prussia, but in all individual German states. Perhaps, according to the king's calculation, the German princes would recognize him as their protector, which would have meant a first step towards a renewed Holy Roman Empire under Prussian leadership.
The Prussian king in the Kingdom of Saxony , in the Palatinate (Bavaria) and above all in the Grand Duchy of Baden had the opportunity to stage himself as the military protector of the princes . In Saxony, King Friedrich August II had caused an insurgent storm on the arsenal in Dresden by sticking to the “No” to the Paulskirche constitution . Since there were only a few troops in the city due to the deployment of the Saxon Army in the Schleswig-Holstein War , the Saxon Foreign Minister Friedrich Ferdinand Freiherr von Beust called for Prussian support on May 3, 1849 and the Dresden May uprising broke out. Shortly before his flight from Dresden, the Saxon king wrote a letter to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, in which he asked him to put down the uprising by force.
On May 5, 1849, Friedrich Wilhelm sent Prussian troops under Colonel Friedrich von Waldersee to Dresden, who brought the city under their control on May 9, 1849. 700 revolutionaries were captured and 250 insurgents killed in the fighting.
Creation of the Erfurt Union
The suppression of the uprising in Saxony strengthened Prussia's negotiating position to found a unified German federal state of princes under Prussian leadership. Joseph von Radowitz, who was appointed Foreign Minister by Friedrich Wilhelm IV on April 22, 1849, was supposed to achieve this goal of the king. According to Radowitz's ideas, Prussia should lead a closer princely union , which in turn should remain loosely connected to Austria through another princely union. The close ties between Prussia and Austria since the Wars of Liberation , which Friedrich Wilhelm IV insisted on because of the common defense against revolutions by the Holy Alliance , were thus loosened, but not severed. In addition, the monarchical principle in particular should be anchored in the desired nation state. The basis for this was the so-called Dreikönigsbündnis of May 26, 1849 between Prussia, the Kingdom of Saxony and the Kingdom of Hanover . In it, the three monarchs committed themselves for a year to work together for the implementation of a conservative imperial constitution, which was based on the Prussian three-class suffrage. However, Ernst August I of Hanover and Friedrich August II of Saxony only joined the demands of constitutional Prussia as long as absolutist Austria had to contend with revolts in Hungary .
Baden campaign
As before in the Kingdom of Saxony, Friedrich Wilhelm IV also intervened against the revolution in the Grand Duchy of Baden and the Palatinate (Bavaria) . Although Grand Duke Leopold von Baden had recognized the constitution of St. Paul's Church of March 28, 1849, the revolutionaries demanded the resignation of the government, the immediate arming of the people and the release of all political prisoners. These demands were rejected by the Grand Duke, as a result of which Baden soldiers of the Rastatt fortress refused on May 11, 1849 to continue guarding imprisoned revolutionaries. The majority of the Baden line troops soon joined the uprising. Supported by regular soldiers, a meeting was held in Offenburg on May 12, 1849, in favor of the program of a social and democratic republic. On May 13, 1849, the family of Grand Duke Leopold and the court from Karlsruhe fled to the Prussian fortress Ehrenbreitstein . On June 1, 1849, the republic was proclaimed in Baden and the monarchy was abolished as a form of government for a short time.
On May 10, 1849, Friedrich Wilhelm IV began to draft a military operation plan for the Bavarian Palatinate and the Grand Duchy of Baden himself . The king already showed the strategically correct idea here, first to secure the Bavarian Palatinate from the west, from Saarbrücken , then to cross the Rhine at Ludwigshafen and to occupy Baden to the south from the north.
Under the leadership of the Prince of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm IV sent 20,000 men to the Palatinate under Moritz von Hirschfeld and the same number to Baden under Karl von der Groeben . They operated together with the 20,000-strong Bundeskorps under Eduard von Peucker . On June 14, 1849, the king announced the death penalty for “every Prussian fighting on the wrong side” . This was to be the undoing of two former Prussian soldiers, including Maximilian Dortu . Morally depressed by the defeats of the revolution in France and Hungary, the 45,000-strong Baden revolutionary army lost several battles against the superior forces. Some of the Baden troops withdrew to the Rastatt fortress , some of them, pursued by Hirschfeld, passed into Switzerland by July 11th or surrendered. The fortress, isolated by Groeben, capitulated on July 23, 1849. This date marks the end of the German Revolution of 1848/1849 .
Friedrich Wilhelm IV also celebrated his victory over the revolution architecturally: next to Babelsberg Castle , which belonged to the Prince of Prussia, he had a monument erected by August Kiß , which shows the Archangel Michael fighting the "Lindwurm of the Revolution". According to the memorial, the Prussian monarchy in the form of the archangel had defended the divine social order against the attack of the revolution, the forces of evil. To the north of the Sanssouci Park there is another royal monument that celebrates the end of the revolution: although the return of Roman soldiers can be seen on the frieze of the Potsdam Triumphal Gate , it is reminiscent of the Baden campaign of the Prussian army a horse-riding general around the Prince of Prussia.
Reaction Era (1850-1858)
Incorporation of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen
After Prussian troops had put down revolutionary unrest in the Principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in the summer of 1849 , Prince Konstantin von Hohenzollern-Hechingen , a cousin of Friedrich Wilhelm IV , renounced the rights of a ruling prince in a state treaty in favor of the King of Prussia. In return, Constantine received an annuity of 10,000 thalers and withdrew to his Silesian property in Löwenberg . With the Principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, the ancestral land and ancestral castle of the Hohenzollern family became Prussian in 1850. Although Friedrich Wilhelm IV had already contractually agreed to rebuild Hohenzollern Castle with the Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1846 , the direct possession of the castle ruins gave him new opportunities. Under the influence of the revolution of 1848/1849 , the king had the castle fortified and given a military garrison. In the summer of 1851, Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Received homage from representatives of the Hohenzollerische Land in the castle courtyard . In 1850, the Principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was incorporated into the Prussian state as part of the southern German government district of Hohenzollernsche Land .
Entry into force of the Constitution
After numerous requests for changes, such as the three-class suffrage and provisional clauses in favor of the crown power, the revised constitution came into force on January 31, 1850. On February 6, 1850, Friedrich Wilhelm IV reluctantly swore an oath on the constitution in the White Hall of the Berlin Palace. Although his camarilla urged him to repeal the constitution completely, Friedrich Wilhelm IV did not want to break his word because of religious and moral scruples. In relation to Emperor Franz Joseph I , who had abolished the constitution in Austria, the Prussian king justified his decision as follows:
"It happened (the oath on the constitution) and my word is holy and I will not break it."
In fact, the king passed nine constitution-amending laws between 1852 and 1857 on the basis of reservation clauses in the constitution; this did not result in a legal breach of the constitution on the part of the king.
In 1853, the king decided that a seat in the “mansion” that had now been created would be hereditary for certain people. He also reserved the right to designate individual members himself. The constitution remained in force until the November Revolution of 1918.
Friedrich Wilhelm IV accepted the constitution, which had to be presented to each of his successors for recognition again on the occasion of enthronement. In his will, he secretly demanded that the successor in question was obliged to refuse to recognize the constitution, contrary to Article 54, if this was presented. Wilhelm I., Friedrich III. and Wilhelm II. however, constitutionally swore an oath. In 1888, Kaiser Wilhelm II even destroyed Friedrich Wilhelm IV's will with his own hand so that this evidence of lack of loyalty to the constitution would not be preserved.
Failure of the Erfurt Union
Since eight individual German states, including the Kingdom of Bavaria and the Kingdom of Württemberg , did not participate in the Erfurt Union from the start , Friedrich Wilhelm IV lost interest in the project. By the winter of 1849, the kingdoms of Hanover and Saxony withdrew their consent. When Friedrich Wilhelm IV opened the Berlin Princes' Day on May 9, 1850 , to which he invited his monarchical allies, he made it clear to those who had gathered that he himself was hardly interested in the state.
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One reason for the king's indecision was the rivalry between the Prussian Foreign Minister Joseph von Radowitz, on the one hand, who pushed the union project forward, and the advisors and ministers close to the king, on the other, who were concerned about their influence over the monarch. The disagreement of the Prussian leadership, which the king was not ready to end, was not hidden from the Austrian government. By taking tough action in foreign policy, the Austrian Prime Minister Felix Fürst zu Schwarzenberg believed he could unsettle the Prussian king to such an extent that he would drop the circle of Union supporters around Joseph von Radowitz.
In contrast to Prussia, Austria wanted to restore the German Confederation and rejected Prussia's union plans. Above all, Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria and Württemberg took the side of Austria in the so-called four - king alliance . When Elector Friedrich Wilhelm I of Hessen-Kassel asked the Bundestag in Frankfurt am Main for military help against protesting subjects ( Kurhessischer Constitutional Conflict ), Austria recognized the opportunity to expand its sphere of influence. Two military roads, which linked the western and eastern provinces of Prussia, ran through the Electorate of Hesse . The occupation of Kurhessen by Bavarian federal troops on November 1, 1850 forced Prussia to give up its union policy. On November 5, 1850, Austria demanded the withdrawal of Prussian troops from the Hessian military roads. Friedrich Wilhelm IV then ordered full mobilization on November 6, 1850 . The king wavered between two party camps. One camp, the majority in the government, held against him that, for reasons of state , war with Austria was inevitable. The other camp, consisting of only three ministers ( Otto von Manteuffel , Leopold von Gerlach and Ludwig von Gerlach ), nevertheless achieved its goal.
On November 24, 1850, the Austrian Prime Minister Felix zu Schwarzenberg gave the Prussian king a war ultimatum by demanding the withdrawal of all Prussian troops from Kurhessen within 48 hours. The Prussian Queen Elisabeth , an aunt of Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria , successfully asked her husband to give in. The king should send Otto Theodor von Manteuffel to Olomouc to negotiate with Schwarzenberg. Shortly before the ultimatum expired, the king agreed to this. Radowitz resigned, and Schwarzenberg's calculation had worked out. With the conservative Union opponents of the Prussian government, he was able to restore the German Confederation without having to wage war. The Olomouc puncture of November 28th and 29th, 1850, caused the Erfurt Union to fail. In the Olomouc Agreement, Prussia declared itself ready to return to the German Confederation without being assured of legal equality in the management of the German Confederation by Austria.
Second assassination attempt (1850)
When the king came out of the king's rooms at Potsdamer Bahnhof on May 22, 1850 to get into a saloon car to Potsdam, the former guard fireworker Max Sefeloge shot the king at close range. The king suffered a severely bleeding flesh wound on his right arm that was slow to heal. The assassin was sent to the insane asylum in Halle for the rest of his life.
Jade Treaty (1853)
Since Prussia's coast lay exclusively on the Baltic Sea and could therefore be easily blocked, Prince Adalbert von Prussia , who was enthusiastic about the navy and a cousin of Friedrich Wilhelm IV , urged the king to build a Prussian war port from which the city of Wilhelmshaven developed.
In 1852, Friedrich Wilhelm IV sent two Prussian diplomats to Oldenburg to negotiate a Prussian land acquisition on the Jade Bay. The result was the Jade Treaty of July 20, 1853, in which the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg agreed to cede 340 hectares of its territory to Prussia in return for the payment of 500,000 thalers. The Prussian Prime Minister von Manteuffel succeeded in allaying the king's concerns about the high financial outlay. On September 25, 1852, Friedrich Wilhelm IV traveled to Rastede to meet the Grand Duke August von Oldenburg . There the Prussian monarch agreed to the Jade Treaty and wanted the fastest possible resolution. With his cabinet order of June 25, 1856, the king approved the construction plans of the naval port construction commission.
Neutrality in the Crimean War (1853-1856)
Since the Tsar's plans to give Russia direct access to the Mediterranean Sea endangered the balance between the five European great powers, the Second French Empire and Great Britain entered the war on March 28, 1854 on the side of the Ottomans against the Tsarist Empire. With this development, the Kingdom of Prussia came under foreign policy pressure. On the one hand, Friedrich Wilhelm was closely linked to the authoritarian and anti-revolutionary tsarist empire through the Holy Alliance , on the other hand, the king feared a tsarist empire that would become too strong in terms of power politics on his border. On February 27, 1854, after some hesitation, Friedrich Wilhelm IV formulated his foreign policy in a directive as follows:
“Prussia should remain neutral [...]. Prussia's neutrality should really be uninvolved, not here, not tending towards that, but independent and self-confident. [...] "
Unpredictably, the neutrality policy pursued by Friedrich Wilhelm IV during the Crimean War turned out to be extremely beneficial for Prussia in historical retrospect: Since the Austrian Empire, unlike Prussia , concentrated troops on the Russian border, relations between Austria and Russia remained so tense that Russia the Austrian-Prussian war of 1866 did not intervene in favor of Austria and thus allowed a Prussian victory.
Neuchâtel Question (1856/1857)
Another crisis in the late reign of Friedrich Wilhelm IV was triggered by the Principality of Neuchâtel . The country in western Switzerland has belonged to the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty since 1717 and has been part of Switzerland since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Prussian kings ruled the principality through governors who rarely interfered in the principality's internal affairs. By 1848 Neuchâtel had become part of a democratic republic that was no longer ready to recognize the rights of the Prussian monarch. In the London Protocol of 1852 , the major European powers recognized Prussia's legal claim to the principality, but did not actively help in its enforcement, which is why the king refrained from a military invasion.
In the summer of 1856, the lieutenant colonel of the artillery of the former Principality of Neuchâtel, Count Ludwig August von Pourtalès , came to Berlin to get Friedrich Wilhelm IV's approval for a putsch to restore the rights of the crown. Although the king did not meet with him, the count drew the conclusion from a conversation with the Prince of Prussia that Friedrich Wilhelm IV would approve of his approach. On September 2, 1856, royalists or king supporters finally rebelled against the democratic government of the canton and occupied strategically important places. However, the republican militias put down the uprising. 667 royalists were taken prisoner, against which Friedrich Wilhelm IV protested with a partial mobilization. He succeeded the French Emperor Napoleon III. to win as an intermediary. Under French pressure, the high treason trials against the royalists were discontinued and the royal supporters released. In return, the great powers Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia forced Frederick William IV to renounce Neuchâtel in the Treaty of Paris on May 26, 1857; he was only allowed to keep the title of Prince of Neuchâtel.
Inability to govern (1858–1861)
In his last years the king suffered from a serious illness, the symptoms of which, from the perspective of contemporary medical knowledge, made it seem obvious to speak of a " mental illness ". However, this point of view, which was mainly widespread by the historian Heinrich von Treitschke , is now considered obsolete in research. According to current medical knowledge, Friedrich Wilhelm suffered from a " cerebral vascular disease", from a "cerebral arteriosclerosis", which "cannot be described as a mental disease". However, psychopathological abnormalities must have occurred before the strokes or paralysis, so that he could hardly continue to run his government office.
From July 14, 1857, Friedrich Wilhelm IV suffered several strokes, which also affected his language center. After the prince of Prussia extended his representation three times, the sick king signed the charter of regency for the prince of Prussia on October 7, 1858. This signature heralded the so-called New Era in Prussia , which de facto meant the end of the government concept of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Prince-Regent Wilhelm dismissed the reactionary Prime Minister von Manteuffel and took Karl Anton von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen from the liberal-national camp . He dismissed the courtiers who had belonged to Friedrich Wilhelm IV's camarilla. On October 12, 1858, the royal couple set out on a long, wintry trip to Italy. Among other things, the king visited Pope Pius IX twice . and the Vatican Museums .
Death and burial
The testimony of his wing adjutant Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen is available about the death of the sick king . Its tasks included notifying the closest relatives. On November 24, 1859, the king suffered a stroke that paralyzed his left side. From then on, half sitting, half lying, he had to be driven around in a wheelchair. Since it was no longer transportable, the court remained in Sanssouci Palace . On November 4, 1860, he lost consciousness after another stroke.
The Prince of Prussia had the entire royal family notified and immediately traveled to Potsdam. The Vossische Zeitung reported that soon locomotives would no longer be available in Berlin because everyone from the royal family took a special train to say goodbye to the dying man. Prince Friedrich Karl is said to have come to Sanssouci by sledge. Thus the monarch's death took place almost publicly. On January 2, 1861, a last stroke put an end to the king's suffering in Sanssouci Palace. According to his testamentary instructions of 1854, the king was buried in the Friedenskirche in Potsdam after his heart was removed from the body and buried next to his parents in the mausoleum in the Charlottenburg Palace Park .
Arts and Culture
Friedrich Wilhelm as an architect
Influences
Friedrich Wilhelm received architectural inspiration as Crown Prince on his educational trip to Italy. The ancient and medieval architecture of Italy, especially early Christian sacred buildings, together with the Italian Renaissance decisively shaped the architectural concepts of the future king.
Over 7000 pages, which were provided with architectural sketches by Friedrich Wilhelm IV, have survived to this day. In order to implement these architectural visions, the king relied on a number of important builders. To be mentioned here are Karl Friedrich Schinkel , his pupils Friedrich August Stüler , Ludwig Persius and Christian Daniel Rauch , whose architectural work found a congenial addition in the work on the large parks by Peter Joseph Lenné and Hermann von Pückler-Muskau .
The royal sketches were not just dream images, but ideological images of a monarchical project. Buildings should be functional objects and contribute to the glorification of anti-revolutionary politics. In this way, the drawings allow insights into the political imagination of Friedrich Wilhelm IV.
Potsdam
With the exception of the Neues Museum, the buildings with the assistance or support of the King were mainly outside of Berlin. Above all, Potsdam , the former place of activity of Frederick the Great , had a great attraction for Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The king revered his dynastic ancestors because he had helped Prussia to become a great power and also promoted art and culture to a previously unknown extent . Friedrich's favorite palace, Sanssouci, which had not been inhabited since his death, was used by Friedrich Wilhelm IV as a summer residence until his death. He had the Frederician interior restored at great expense and the palace complex expanded. On January 2, 1861, Friedrich Wilhelm IV died in Sanssouci Palace.
During his time as the Crown Prince, Friedrich Wilhelm had Charlottenhof Palace built and then the Roman Baths . He was also involved in the construction of the Heilandskirche Sacrow , which was also built according to his designs.
The deeply religious Friedrich Wilhelm detested the deism of Frederick the Great. For this reason, in order to secure the salvation of his dynasty, he built the Friedenskirche at the eastern end of the park landscape as a counterpoint to the purely secular Sanssouci summer residence .
To the north of the Sanssouci Park, between Mühlenberg and Belvedere on the Klausberg , Friedrich Wilhelm IV planned a Triumphstrasse. For financial reasons, however, the building project could only be partially implemented. The Triumphal Gate marked the entrance to Triumphstrasse . Friedrich Wilhelm IV sketched the building based on the Argentarian arch in Rome.
The only other construction project on Potsdamer Triumphstrasse was the Orangery Palace . The orangery is over 300 meters long with its mighty central building and the two plant halls on the side. Two Roman Renaissance villas , the Villa Doria Pamphili and the Villa Medici , which Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Had seen as Crown Prince on his trip to Italy, were the inspiration for the designs of the facades. Even during the revolution of 1848/1849 the king personally checked the progress of the earthworks necessary for the construction of the facility. The Potsdam monument conservator Friedrich Mielke therefore describes the orangery as a "building of defiance".
Even as Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm had in mind to have a palace built on the Pfingstberg , the highest point in Potsdam, with viewing terraces and salons. According to his plans, a water basin was to be created in the inner courtyard of the complex, which would feed the fountains of the New Garden via cascade courses . Two years after the king's death, the construction of the Belvedere on the Pfingstberg was completed in 1863 as a hardly habitable fragment, because the successor King Wilhelm I showed little interest in the building. Only two rooms were completed.
In the shape of a Moorish domed mosque, Friedrich Wilhelm IV wanted to see the pumping station for the water supply to the fountain of Sanssouci Palace. The chimney of the steam engine house was disguised as a minaret . The steam engine pumped water into the basin on the ruin mountain , which fed the 38 meter high fountain below the wine terraces.
Rhine Province
Although Prussia had only acquired the Rhine province in 1815 and had no rights to the region going back to the Middle Ages, Friedrich Wilhelm IV wanted to present himself as the legal successor to the Rhenish aristocratic families. Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm was given the opportunity to show his lordly presence in the Upper Middle Rhine Valley when the city of Koblenz gave him the Stolzenfels castle ruins in 1823 , which he had converted into a palace in neo-Gothic style . From Stolzenfels as a temporary seat of government he was able to demonstrate closeness to the Rhenish population, which was extremely important during the French July Revolution in 1830 because of the possible spill over of revolutionary ideas. On September 14, 1842, Stolzenfels Castle was inaugurated with a festival in medieval costumes and in the presence of the royal couple. The architectural program of the Upper Middle Rhine Valley also included the Binger Mouse Tower and Sooneck Castle .
In Brühl , the king ordered the restoration of the rooms of Augustusburg Castle in 1842 . Since the furniture and paintings in the residence had been auctioned or destroyed during the French occupation (1794 to 1814), he ordered stocks from other Prussian castles to be moved to Brühl. With Augustusburg Palace, Friedrich Wilhelm IV wanted to symbolically build on the baroque heyday under Elector Clemens August . Both the palace and the park were open to the public, which was intended to promote the close proximity between people and royalty.
Berlin
The relationship between the king and his capital, Berlin, was extremely tense for two reasons. First, Friedrich Wilhelm IV saw his capital as a revolutionary source of unrest. Second, unlike Potsdam, Berlin had lost its character as a residential city in places because of its uncontrolled industrial growth . Instead of the king, the Berlin bourgeoisie began to rise to become the city's most important building initiator.
The Spree island , however, as the king ordered on March 8, 1841, was to become “a sanctuary for art and science”. The monarch assumed that the power of art and education would undermine the capital's revolutionary superstitions. With an expansion of the Museum Island , Friedrich Wilhelm IV believed that he was strengthening the loyalty of Berliners to the Prussian monarchy. He was inspired by the general theory of the fine arts of the philosopher Johann Georg Sulzer , according to which the “mind and heart” of people take a “nobler turn” through the impression of the “beautiful, well-rhymed and decent”. The king used art and architecture to educate his subjects.
As Crown Prince, he had ensured that the Spree shipping fleet cleared their port facility north of the Altes Museum . It was precisely at this point that he had the Neues Museum built to house collections that could not be accommodated in the Altes Museum for reasons of space. With the exhibits from the beginnings and early advanced cultures of human and cultural history, the king was able to stage himself as a continuer of the history of civilization. After Friedrich Wilhelm IV once again had a strong influence on the building plans, Friedrich August Stüler , who was appointed "King's Architect" in 1842 , created a building with two inner courtyards, temple gables on the long sides and a staircase in the opulent ballroom style. The interior boasted a lot of wall painting and gold that referred to the exhibits.
At the beginning of the 1840s, Friedrich Wilhelm made the decision to revive the often dead uninteresting areas of the Mark with the erection of [...] meaningful monuments. Three turning points in the country's history were intended to breathe history into the remote "sand bells" and offer travelers incentives. This includes the shield horn monument in Berlin-Grunewald , which links a historical act, the victory of the Brandenburg margrave Albrecht the Bear over Slavic tribes, with the confession of Christianity. For the artistic implementation of the Schildhorn saga , the king made pencil sketches with his own hands in 1844 and commissioned Stüler with the conception of the monument that the building officer Christian Gottlieb Cantian erected in the summer of 1845. The work of the "witty royal dilettante" met with little approval. The writer Theodor Fontane wrote that it was "half a telegraph post and half a factory chimney". The art critic Eva Börsch-Supan criticizes the fact that Friedrich August Stüler did not oppose the monarch decisively enough on questions of aesthetics. Stüler, with whom he was in Italy in 1858/59, accepted his concepts for church buildings, for example in the form of basilica and campanile , or for monuments usually without major objections.
Friedrich Wilhelm as an artist
In 1810, the philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart described the 15-year-old crown prince's immense talent for drawing and lets the reader share in his admiration for the prince's lively imagination.
At the age of just five, the Crown Prince showed great enthusiasm for art. At that time, royal education provided for instruction in the military, law, religion, history and literature, but also in drawing. The prince's talent for artistic expression did not go unnoticed from his tutor Friedrich Delbrück , so that at a very early age he worked with his parents to ensure that he received in-depth drawing lessons.
His first drawing teacher was the court building inspector Ludwig Krüger, who allowed him less elementary drawing lessons than a holistic representation type based on a holistic approach. This approach is one reason why many of the prince's drawings are very simple, but are extremely expressive. Two years later, the chief building officer Andreas Krieger, the landscape painter Janus Genelli and the painter Johann Heusinger devoted themselves to training Friedrich Wilhelm's artistic skills. He received studies of the history of art from the ancient world from Hofrat Aloys Hirt . This training was extended by the academy and gallery director Johann G. Puhlmann in his remarks on the classical art of Italy. The art history studies were continued and expanded by Carl Friedrich von Rumohr . Later Karl Friedrich Schinkel was one of his teachers, with whose close cooperation he designed diverse architectural projects, such as the Gothic Berlin Cathedral , Stolzenfels Castle or the national monument for the wars of liberation . After Schinkel's death in 1841, Friedrich Wilhelm IV worked with the architects Ludwig Persius and August Stüler to realize his building projects. The latter also redesigned Erdmannsdorf Castle in Lower Silesia in the Tudor Gothic style for him .
However, Friedrich Wilhelm's enthusiasm for art grew to such an enormous extent that his later tutor Johann PF Ancillon admonished him several times at a young age to turn to the more important educational areas of a Crown Prince. However, these exhortations had little effect on the student. The crown prince continued to draw ambitiously, deepened his talents and developed into a truly passionate draftsman throughout his life.
medal
Foundation of the peace class in the Pour le Mérite order
The order Pour le Mérite founded by Frederick II was expanded by Frederick William IV in 1842 to include a peace class for special merits in the field of art and science. Contrary to Friedrich Wilhelm's assumption, officers and some artists and scholars were awarded the order in the 18th century. The king appointed his chamberlain Alexander von Humboldt as the first chancellor of the order . A short time later, "knights" such as the linguist Jacob Grimm, the poet Ludwig Tieck and the sculptor Johann Gottfried Schadow were appointed to the order. The king also arranged for the appointment of Austrian State Chancellor Klemens Wenzel Lothar von Metternich, who, although he had no artistic or scientific achievements, was valued by the king as the keeper of the monarchical order and peace. Later, new members were added by election.
Revival of the Swan Order
With the revival of the Swan Order, which was founded in 1440, Friedrich Wilhelm IV hoped to be able to implant the idealized knightly values of the Middle Ages into 19th century society. The order was accessible to both the Catholic and Protestant denominations and was intended to ensure the care of the needy, the sick and the poor. The charity that Friedrich Wilhelm IV had planned for the Swan Order was increasingly taken over by the Berlin Deaconess Hospital Bethanien .
reception
19th century reviews
for the caricatures about Friedrich Wilhelm IV. see → Berliner Janus and How one always steps next to it
A caricature created in the course of the revolution and designed by Isidor Popper in 1849 shows a corpulent Friedrich Wilhelm counting on the buttons of his uniform whether to accept or reject the imperial crown offered to him by the Paulskirche in Frankfurt. At the bottom of the picture is the text: “Should I? - shouldn't I? - Should I?! Kneppe, you want! nu jerade nich !! ”With his right hand he lifts the imperial crown, but does not sit on it. In the background there is a set table with a champagne bottle. The king's way of making decisions is thus presented as arbitrary and dependent on chance.
The king was heavily criticized by well-known contemporaries. Friedrich Engels declared in an essay from 1842 that Friedrich Wilhelm's struggle for a Christian and against a free state was doomed to failure. In it the "Prussian principle [...] appears in its last revival, but at the same time in its complete powerlessness in relation to free self-confidence". Prussia now necessarily has to either liberalize itself or “collapse in on itself if it does not have the strength to make that progress”. Without wanting to jump to conclusions, Prussia is similar to pre-revolutionary France .
The poet Ludwig Pfau portrayed him as an alcoholic in his poem Der Gottesgnadenfritz . Heinrich Heine scoffed in 1855 in his poem The crowd does it :
“I have a soft spot for this king;
I think we're a little bit alike.
A noble mind, has a lot of talent -
I too, I would be a bad ruler. "
The evaluation of the political achievements of Friedrich Wilhelm IV followed this dictum for a long time. Other contemporaries intensified the impression of the king's aesthetic and unworldly character. The contemporaries saw the king predominantly as a "soulful dreamer" who "indulged in the ideals of worlds long past"; he was "shy of responsibility, indecisiveness and unbalanced", but on the other hand he was definitely "good-natured, interested in many things and full of ideas".
The writer and philosopher David Friedrich Strauss first coined the nickname "Romantic on the throne", which is often used to this day, for Friedrich Wilhelm IV in 1847. Strauss compared Friedrich Wilhelm's restoration efforts with the futile efforts of the Roman Emperor Julian to revive the old polytheistic world of gods.
In the 19th century, the assessment of the king was closely linked to national ideas that arose in the course of the development of a German nation-state. Not least because of this, Friedrich Wilhelm IV stood in the shadow of his militarily energetic successor Wilhelm I during the German Empire . The “romantic on the throne”, on the other hand, was seen as a weakling in power politics who renounced German national unification in favor of Austria . This view, shaped by historians such as Heinrich von Treitschke and Heinrich von Sybel , lasted until the early Federal Republic of Germany.
Reviews in the 20th and 21st centuries
Valuation positions of historians
In the tradition of the old image of the poorly assertive “romantic on the throne” stands the judgment of the historian Heinrich Lutz that Friedrich Wilhelm “was dependent on changing situations during his entire reign instead of mastering and directing them as he did would have corresponded to a highly strained monarchical self-image ”. Uwe A. Oster sees him as a figure who politically no longer fit into the 19th century. He had not found an answer to the side effects of the beginning industrial revolution in Germany, to the social question and pauperism, or to the demand of the bourgeoisie for political participation in the state. He sees the reason for this in the fact that Friedrich Wilhelm viewed these upheavals as a personal punishment from God and not as a driving force for urgently needed reforms.
According to Günther Grünthal , the king's ability "to flee into the ideal world of historicizing phantasies all too easily and too often gave him the opportunity to evade the realities of the 19th century". He sees the king as well as the Austrian state chancellor Metternich as a variant of the dilemma of the conservative in a revolutionary time. With his retrospective ideas, the king followed a romantic trend of the middle of the century, which the majority of contemporaries did not share and thus did not understand. From his father he inherited a weakness in decision-making; this favored the formation of a camarilla .
Gerd Heinrich raised an objection against this point of view, attesting that the “Hohenzollern who fell out of line” had “a skillful realism and lucid intelligence” in addition to all nervous receptivity and illusion. Historians such as Barclay and Frank-Lothar Kroll emphasized that Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Can be understood from the possibilities and dependencies of the mid-19th century. During his reign he tried to harmonize the society of the dawning modernity and the beginning industrial age. The political and social upheavals of the past should be cushioned and reconciled with the present. The social model of the corporate state should show each individual his God-given place and allow him to proudly fulfill the tasks and duties assigned to him.
Barclay emphasizes the fact that Frederick William IV gave priority to dynastic, religious, aesthetic and ideological values over considerations of realpolitik. This led contemporaries to assume that the king lived in an anachronistic dream world without any reference to his time. In doing so, contemporaries overlooked the fact that Friedrich Wilhelm IV was actually pursuing a "monarchical project". This project consisted in establishing a sacred monarchy in Prussia, which should be supported by corporate institutions. His monarchical project failed above all because such traditions were never deeply rooted in Prussia. Nevertheless, according to Barclay, it is too easy to dismiss Friedrich Wilhelm's political concept as an “eccentric romantic fantasy”. Rather, he strived for a renewal of the monarchy in order to create an alternative to the revolutionary overthrow. In doing so, he attached importance to a more public representation of his monarchical project, for example by holding speeches. Finally, the contradiction between class institutions and the absolutist style of government in the Vormärz turned out to be problematic. The king had neither wanted to restrict his authority by the estates nor wanted to rule without the consent of the estates. Barclay attributes this discrepancy to the different views in Friedrich Wilhelm's advisory group. There was no common strategy as to how the monarchical project was to be implemented in detail. However, Friedrich Wilhelm's adherence to his ideological concept led to Prussia developing into a semi-autocratic and semi-securitized constitutional state in the 1850s. This political limbo, which persisted until 1918, was a legacy of the balance sheet of Friedrich Wilhelm's reign.
The failure of Friedrich Wilhelm's national policy, however, was less due to political or military weakness, as the 19th century had postulated: Since the realization of the German question was at the same time a European question that could jeopardize the current balance of power politics on the continent would have one Realization of Friedrich Wilhelm's foreign policy ambition may provoke a long-term war with the other major European powers. According to the historian Alexander Demandt, a large-scale military escalation such as the First World War would hypothetically have taken place decades earlier, but could have been fought with less fatal weapons.
Role of the camarilla
There is disagreement among historians about the influence of the camarilla: Since in Frederick William IV's Prussia the monarch and not the ministry or the prime minister was always at the center of the decision-making process, the rivalries in the personal environment of the king after Christopher Clark presented a serious problem explain the fluctuations in the political judgments of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The camarilla, which in fact formed an ultra-conservative subsidiary government, consisted of between ten and fifteen people. Without exception, they came from high court or military ranks and had an intimate relationship with the king that usually went back to the time of the Crown Prince. With their ideas of divine right and an old-class constitution, they are said to have helped shape Friedrich Wilhelm's idea of the state.
Above all, Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach , whom the historian Julius H. Schoeps calls a "doctrinaire of conservatism", is said to have exerted a special influence on the king's political thinking. Like the king, Gerlach was “reactionary and backwards dressed” and deeply imbued with the Christian faith. On the one hand, like many young Berlin nobles, Gerlach was shaped by the pietistic awakening movement and, on the other hand, by an influence emanating from thinkers such as Friedrich Carl von Savigny or Karl Ludwig von Haller . For Gerlach, the throne and the altar therefore represented an inseparable unit; he therefore saw the king's duty to establish a theocracy or “a kingdom of God” in Prussia . Gerlach's attempt consisted in restoring the political order of the pre-revolutionary ancien regime through the person of the king, whose adjutant he had been since the time of the Crown Prince . In his opinion, the consequences of the French Revolution should be reversed; this was particularly true of secularization and the separation of church and state that had begun . Gerlach was skeptical of all attempts at popular sovereignty . He only had limited confidence in people and their abilities. He considered the attempt of the "haughty man" to be able to determine the course of history in the democratic sense to be blasphemous . Gerlach saw the disintegration of the estates' society, which culminated in revolutions, as rooted in a spiritual and religious decline that had to be combated. Friedrich Wilhelm IV's policy of reconciliation, especially towards Catholics and nationalists, the initial amnesty and relaxation of censorship, thus go back, according to Schoeps, to the Gerlachian idea of the state.
Dirk Blasius, on the other hand, sees the influence of the camarilla primarily in the area of policy correction, not in independent policy making. This is supported by the fact that members of the camarilla often only held an influential position for a few years. The “re-feudalization” or restoration of the political situation before the revolution of 1848 fell far short of the camarilla's expectations. According to Grünthal, the king was mentally much too flexible, too volatile and unsteady to be dependent on individual advisers. In addition, the camarilla was not a unified political force, but rather a "branch of specific interests and influences". The king tended to think of his personal advisers as mere tools of his will. Only those who agreed with the royal views from the outset or who stood by him during the revolution of 1848 could count on support or approval from the king. During the months of the revolution, the camarilla was actually able to control the reign more strongly, but that was the only exception to the rule.
Monuments
The equestrian statues of Kings Wilhelm I and Friedrich Wilhelm IV on Cologne's Hohenzollern Bridge , completed in 1866 by Gustav Blaeser , were erected in 1867 between the bridge towers on pillars above the two portals: Friedrich Wilhelm IV on the Cologne side, Wilhelm I on the Deutz side.
Twelve years after the death of King Gustav Bläser created the central front of the facade of the Orangerie palace in Sanssouci Park , built marble statue of Frederick William IV. Of Alexander Calandrelli designed equestrian statue on the steps of the Old National Gallery was established in 1886. The memorial is the only one of the five equestrian statues in Berlin to have neither a three-cornered hat nor a spiked hat - a fact that contributed to the fact that the memorial was not classified as a symbol of militarism in GDR times and was thus neither moved nor destroyed. In 1900, Karl Begas executed a statue of the king ( monument group 31 ) in Berlin's Siegesallee .
family tree
literature
- David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Goodwill. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the German monarchy. Siedler-Verlag, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 .
- Dirk Blasius : Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 .
- Walter Bussmann : Between Prussia and Germany. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Siedler-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-88680-500-X .
- Ludwig Dehio : Friedrich Wilhelm IV. An architectural artist of the Romantic period. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Berlin / Munich 1961.
- Frank-Lothar Kroll : Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 .
- Peter Krüger , Julius H. Schoeps (ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 3-930850-67-2 .
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Dorothea Minkels : Correspondence of the royal couple Friedrich Wilhelm IV. & Elisabeth of Prussia (Bavaria). Published by the Queen Elisabeth von Preussen Gesellschaft, Books on Demand, Norderstedt 2020.
- Volume 1: (1841-1842). ISBN 978-3-7322-9492-3
- Volume 2: (1840–1843): Prussia's first modern king. ISBN 978-3-7392-5467-8
- Volume 3: (1844-1845): The industrial and art sponsor & the protector of social institutions. ISBN 978-3-7494-0294-6 .
- Heinz Ohff : Prussia's kings. Piper, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-492-04055-1 .
- Mallow Countess Rothkirch: The "romantic" on the Prussian throne. Portrait of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Droste Verlag, Düsseldorf 1990, ISBN 3-7700-0800-6 .
- Rolf Thomas Senn: In Arcadia. Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. A biographical land survey. Lukas Verlag for Art and Spiritual History, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-86732-163-1 .
- Jan Werquet: Historicism and Representation. Friedrich Wilhelm IV's building policy in the Prussian Rhine Province (= art studies. Volume 160). Deutscher Kunstverlag, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-422-06923-7 .
Web links
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- Literature by and about Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In the catalog of the German National Library
- Works by and about Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In the German Digital Library
- Kurt Borries: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 5, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1961, ISBN 3-428-00186-9 , pp. 563-566 ( digitized version ).
- Biography of the German historical museum
- Prussian chronicle
- Several articles on Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In the yearbook Prussian Palaces and Gardens Berlin-Brandenburg Foundation 1 (1995/1996) on perspectivia.net .
- Edited letters from and to Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In the web service correspSearch of the BBAW
- The online catalog of the SPSG describes and comments on the drawings left by Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia (1795–1861)
- Encounters with Friedrich Wilhelm IV. From the memories of Johannes Dittrich
- Maren Gottschalk : October 15, 1795 - birthday of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. WDR ZeitZeichen from October 15, 2020 (podcast)
Remarks
- ^ Franz Herre : Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , pp. 7-8.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius : Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861: Psychopathology and History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 25; Merete van Taack: Queen Luise. Invincible love. Heyne, Munich 1996, ISBN 978-3-453-55084-1 , p. 253; Daniel Schönpflug: Luise of Prussia: Queen of Hearts. Beck. Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-59813-5 , p. 133.
- ↑ Franz Herre. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 12.
- ^ Karl-Heinz Börner: Wilhelm I. A biography. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-7609-0923-X , p. 56.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861: Psychopathology and History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 26.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861: Psychopathology and History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 25.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 4.
- ↑ a b c David E. Barclay: Anarchy and good will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 57.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 12.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 27.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861: Psychopathology and History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 29
- ↑ a b c d Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 13.
- ↑ Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , p. 500.
- ^ Karl-Heinz Börner: Wilhelm I. A biography. Akademieverlag, Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-7609-0923-X , p. 16.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861: Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 30.
- ^ Daniel Schönpflug: Luise von Preußen: Queen of Hearts. 3. Edition. Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-59813-5 , p. 170.
- ^ Malve Countess Rothkirch: The "Romantic" on the Prussian throne. Portrait of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Droste, Düsseldorf 1990, ISBN 3-7700-0800-6 . P. 16.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 31.
- ^ Daniel Schönpflug: Luise von Preußen: Queen of Hearts. 3. Edition. Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-59813-5 , p. 222 .; Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 15.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 15.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861: Psychopathology and History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 . P. 32.
- ^ A b Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Cat. Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 19.
- ^ Hans-Joachim Giersberg (ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV., Artist and king. Frankfurt am Main 1995, p. 25.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861: Psychopathology and History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 38.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861: Psychopathology and History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 46.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Cat. Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 22.
- ↑ Quoted from Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 46.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 46.
- ↑ Maja Galle: The Archangel Michael in the German art of the 19th century. Utz, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-8316-0185-2 , p. 45.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 23.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll : Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 31.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 161.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Cat. Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 26.
- ↑ a b David E. Barclay: Anarchy and good will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , pp. 60-61.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 42.
- ↑ Hubert Bastgen: The Holy See and the marriage of Princess Elisabeth of Bavaria with Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. In: Römische Viertelschrift 37, 1929, pp. 349–352, here: p. 349.
- ^ Christine von Brühl: Grace in the Brandenburg sand. The women of the Hohenzollern. Construction Verlag, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-351-03597-6 , p. 34.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 43.
- ^ Christine von Brühl: Grace in the Brandenburg sand. The women of the Hohenzollern. Construction Verlag, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-351-03597-6 , p. 34.
- ^ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and good will: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , pp. 70-71.
- ^ Wolfram Letzner: Berlin - a biography. People and fates from the Ascanians to Helmut Kohl and the capital of Germany. Nünnerich Asmus, Mainz 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-37-4 .
- ↑ Jürgen Angelow : Wilhelm I. (1861-1888). In: Frank-Lothar Kroll (Hrsg.): Prussia's rulers. From the first Hohenzollern to Wilhelm II. Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-46711-3 , pp. 242–264, here: p. 248.
- ^ Karl-Heinz Börner: Wilhelm I. German Emperor and King of Prussia. A biography 1797–1888. Pahl-Rugenstein, Cologne 1984, ISBN 3-7609-0923-X , p. 56.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 77.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 87.
- ^ Jürgen Krüger: Rome and Jerusalem. Church building ideas of the Hohenzollern in the 19th century. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-05-002427-5 , p. 116.
- ↑ Uwe A. Oster: Prussia: History of a Kingdom. Piper, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3492051910 . P. 301.
- ^ Karl-Heinz Börner: Wilhelm I. A biography. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-7609-0923-X , p. 53.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , pp. 80-81.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , pp. 80-81.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , pp. 82-84.
- ^ Walter Bußmann : Between Prussia and Germany. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. A biography. Siedler, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-88680-326-0 , p. 166. David E. Barclay: Anarchy and good will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 91.
- ^ Ilja Mieck: From the reform period to the revolution (1806-1847). In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Ed.): History of Berlin. Vol. 1: From early history to industrialization. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 3-406-31591-7 , pp. 407-602, here: p. 587.
- ↑ Uta Motschmann: Handbook of Berlin Associations and Societies 1786-1815. De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-05-006015-6 , p. 654.
- ↑ a b c d David E. Barclay: Anarchy and good will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 91.
- ^ Wolf Nitschke: Adolf Heinrich Graf v. Arnim-Boitzenburg (1803-1868). A political biography. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2004, ISBN 978-3-428-11114-5 . P. 103.
- ^ Wolfram Siemann: Germany's peace, security and order. The beginnings of the political police 1806–1866. De Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 978-3-484-35014-4 , p. 195.
- ^ Wolfram Siemann: Germany's peace, security and order. The beginnings of the political police 1806–1866. De Gruyter, Berlin 1985, ISBN 978-3-484-35014-4 , p. 195.
- ^ Wilhelm von Sternburg: The history of the Germans. Campus-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-593-37100-6 , p. 134.
- ↑ Wolfgang J Mommsen: 1848. the unwanted revolution. The revolutionary movements in Europe 1830–1849. Fischer, Berlin 2000, ISBN 978-3-596-13899-9 , p. 71.
- ↑ Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , p. 503.
- ↑ Olaf Jessen: The Moltkes. Family biography. 2nd Edition. Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-60499-7 , p. 91; Hans-Joachim Schoeps: The awakening Christian on the throne. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (Ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 3-930850-67-2 , pp. 71–90, here: p. 74.
- ↑ Frank Lothar Kroll: State ideal, understanding of rule and government practice. In: Jörg Meiner, Jan Werquet (ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Of Prussia. Politics - Art - Ideal. Lukas-Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86732-176-1 , pp. 18–30, here: p. 26.
- ^ Novalis - works in one volume. Edited by Hans-Joachim Mähl and Richard Samuel. Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, Munich 1995, ISBN 3-423-02383-X , p. 526.
- ^ Walter Bußmann: Between Prussia and Germany: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. A biography. Siedler, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-88680-326-0 , p. 128.
- ↑ Jörg Meiner, Jan Werquet: King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia as a "state artist" between the original catastrophe and restoration. In: Jörg Meiner, Jan Werquet (ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Of Prussia. Politics - Art - Ideal. Lukas-Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86732-176-1 , pp. 11-17, here: pp. 11 f.
- ↑ Frank-Lothar Kroll: Monarchy and God's grace in Prussia. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 978-3-930850-67-9 , pp. 45–70, here: p. 48.
- ^ Daniel Schönpflug: Luise von Preußen. Queen of the Hearts. 3. Edition. Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-59813-5 , p. 133.
- ↑ Quoted from Iselin Gundermann (Ed.): Via Regia. Prussia's way to the crown. Exhibition of the Secret State Archives of Prussian Cultural Heritage. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09454-9 , p. 101.
- ↑ Gaby Huch: Between Ehrenpforte and Incognito. Prussian kings on the road: Sources for the representation of the monarchy between 1797 and 1871. de Gruyter. Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-11-040915-4 , p. 88.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 91.
- ↑ Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , p. 505.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 91.
- ↑ Hans-Joachim Schoeps: The awakening Christ on the throne. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (Ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 3-930850-67-2 , pp. 71–90, here: p. 73.
- ↑ Hans-Joachim Schoeps: The awakening Christ on the throne. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (Ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 3-930850-67-2 , pp. 71–90, here: p. 73.
- ↑ Ilja Mieck: From the reform period to the revolution (1806-1847). In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Ed.): History of Berlin. Vol. 1: From early history to industrialization. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 3-406-31591-7 , pp. 407-602, here: p. 588.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 69.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 70.
- ^ Ernst Behler, Jean-Jacques Anstett, Hans Eichner (Ed.): Friedrich Schlegel. Critical edition of his works. Volume 14: Lectures on Universal History (1805–1806). Introduced and edited by Jean-Jacques Anstett. Schöningh, München / Wien 1960, p. 63. Cf. Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 70.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 70.
- ^ Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Part: 1., From the end of the Old Empire to the fall of the Weimar Republic. 1st revised edition. Beck, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-66080-1 , p. 86.
- ↑ Patrick Eidden-Offe: Giving advice: On theory and analysis of advisory action . Transcript-Verlag, Bielefeld 2014, ISBN 978-3-8376-2359-8 , p. 280.
- ↑ Frank Lothar Kroll: State ideal, understanding of rule and government practice. In: Jörg Meiner, Jan Werquet (ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Of Prussia. Politics - Art - Ideal. Lukas-Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86732-176-1 , pp. 18–30, here: p. 27.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 96.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 164.
- ^ Wolf D. Gruner: France in the European order of the 19th century. In: Wolf D. Gruner, Klaus-Jürgen Müller (Ed.): Via France to Europe. France past and present. Krämer, Hamburg 1996, ISBN 978-3-926952-92-9 , pp. 201-274, here: p. 243.
- ^ Peter Burg: Unequal partners? Austria and Germany in their mutual perception. Historical analyzes and comparisons from the 19th and 20th centuries. Studien Verlag, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-7065-4849-6 , p. 88.
- ^ Peter Burg: Unequal partners? Austria and Germany in their mutual perception. Historical analyzes and comparisons from the 19th and 20th centuries. Studien Verlag, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-7065-4849-6 , p. 88.
- ↑ Monica Klaus: Johanna Kinkel. Romance and revolution . Universitätsverlag Winter GmbH Heidelberg 2008. ISBN 978-3-8253-5987-4 , p. 104.
- ^ S. Fischer-Fabian: Prussian War and Peace. The way to the German Reich. Bastei Publishing House. 2008, ISBN 978-3-404-64229-8 , p. 270.
- ↑ Kurt Selle : Opposition fraternity members from the state of Braunschweig in the period from 1820 to 1848. In: Braunschweigisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte 80 (1999), pp. 101–141, here: p. 115.
- ^ Jürgen Kocka: Handbook of German history: The long 19th century 1806-1918. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 978-3-608-60013-1 , p. 466.
- ^ Gerd Heinrich : History of Prussia. State and dynasty. Propylaea, Frankfurt am Main 1981, S. Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall. 1600-1947. DVA. Stuttgart 2006, p. 500; Frank-Lothar Kroll: The Hohenzollern. Beck, Munich 2008, p. 86.
- ^ Wolfgang Neugebauer (historian, 1953) : Wolfgang Neugebauer: Preußen. In: Religion in Past and Present , Volume 6. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2003, Sp. 1636.
- ↑ Christina Rathgeber: From church society to church in society. Piety, State Action and the Early Politicization of Prussian Catholics (1815–1871). De Gruyter, Berlin 2016. ISBN 978-3-11-044693-7 . P. 50.
- ↑ a b c Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , p. 483.
- ↑ Klaus Herbers. The Holy Roman Empire. Scenes from a thousand-year history. Böhlau, Cologne 2005, ISBN 978-3-412-23405-8 , p. 294.
- ↑ Christina Rathgeber: From church society to church in society. Piety, State Action and the Early Politicization of Prussian Catholics (1815–1871). de Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 2016, ISBN 978-3-11-044693-7 . P. 51.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll: The Hohenzollern. Beck, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3406536267 . P. 88.
- ^ Hans-Ulrich Wehler : Deutsche Gesellschaftgeschichte, Volume 2. From the reform era to the industrial and political German double revolution 1815–1845 / 49. Beck, Munich 1987, p. 473. ISBN 978-3406322624
- ↑ Hannelore Deya: New Historical Encyclopedia , Edition Vorpommern. Haff Publishing House. 2013, ISBN 978-3-942916-83-7 , p. 29.
- ↑ Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , p. 502.
- ^ Wolfgang Neugebauer: Prussia. In: Religion Past and Present. Volume 6. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2003, Sp. 1636 f.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll: The Hohenzollern. Beck, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-406-53626-7 , p. 87.
- ^ Wolfgang Neugebauer: Handbook of Prussian History. The 19th century and major themes in the history of Prussia . Volume 2. de Gruyter. Berlin 2009. ISBN 978-3-11-083957-9 . P. 210.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 101.
- ↑ Bettine von Arnim. Represented by Helmut Hirsch with personal testimonies and picture documents 2nd edition. Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag. Reinbek 1987, ISBN 978-3-499-50369-6 , p. 97.
- ↑ Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , p. 515.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Cat. Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 101.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 92 ff.
- ^ Uwe A. Oster: Prussia. Story of a kingdom. 2nd Edition. Piper, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-492-26491-4 , p. 271.
- ^ Eva spokesman: Considerations on railway construction under Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Betthausen, Irene Kahlau and Karl-Heinz Noack (eds.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV., Artist and king. For the 200th birthday. Prussian Palaces and Gardens Foundation Berlin-Brandenburg. Fichter Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1995, p. 171.
- ^ Ilja Mieck: From the reform period to the revolution (1806-1847). In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Ed.): History of Berlin. Vol. 1: From early history to industrialization. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 3-406-31591-7 , pp. 407-602, here: p. 574.
- ^ Eva spokesman: Considerations on railway construction under Friedrich Wilhelm IV. , In: Peter Betthausen, Irene Kahlau and Karl-Heinz Noack (eds.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV., Artist and king. For the 200th birthday , Prussian Palaces and Gardens Foundation Berlin-Brandenburg, Fichter Verlag 1995, p. 171.
- ^ Eva spokesman: Considerations on railway construction under Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Betthausen, Irene Kahlau and Karl-Heinz Noack (eds.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV., Artist and king: for the 200th birthday. Foundation of Prussian Palaces and Gardens Berlin-Brandenburg, Fichter Verlag 1995, p. 171; Sabine Bohle-Heintzenberg: Architecture & Beauty. the Schinkel School in Berlin and Brandenburg. Transit, Berlin 1997, ISBN 3-88747-121-0 , p. 100.
- ^ Eva spokesman: Considerations on railway construction under Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Betthausen, Irene Kahlau and Karl-Heinz Noack (eds.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV., Artist and king: for the 200th birthday. Prussian Palaces and Gardens Foundation Berlin-Brandenburg. Fichter Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1995, p. 171.
- ↑ Ilja Mieck: From the reform period to the revolution (1806-1847). In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Ed.): History of Berlin. Vol. 1: From early history to industrialization. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 3-406-31591-7 , pp. 407-602, here: p. 580.
- ^ Hartmut Dorgerloh: Prussian Residences. Royal palaces and gardens in Berlin and Brandenburg. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich 2005. ISBN 3-422-06493-1 , p. 95.
- ↑ Werner Lorenz. Construction as a work of art: Building with iron in Berlin and Potsdam 1797–1850. Gebr. Mann Verlag, Berlin 1995, ISBN 978-3-7861-1774-2 , p. 87.
- ↑ a b c Uwe A. Oster: Prussia. Story of a kingdom. Piper, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-492-05191-0 , p. 273.
- ^ Günter Richter: Between Revolution and Founding of the Empire (1848-1870). In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Ed.): History of Berlin. Vol. 2: From the March Revolution to the Present. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 978-3406315923 . Pp. 605-687, here: p. 664.
- ^ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and good will: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 155.
- ^ Adam Zamoyski: Phantoms of Terror. Fear of the Revolution and the Suppression of Freedom, 1789–1848. Beck, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-406-69766-1 , p. 523.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 203.
- ^ Adam Zamoyski: Phantoms of Terror. Fear of the Revolution and the Suppression of Freedom, 1789–1848. Beck, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-406-69766-1 , p. 523.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 118.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 , p. 118; Richard von Kralik : General History of the Modern Age. Second volume: 1836-1856. Verlag BoD - Books on Demand, 2017 (reprint of the original from 1916), p. 450
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 3-938047-22-4 , p. 113.
- ^ Diaries. From the estate of Varnhagen von Ense. Vol. 4. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1874, p. 313.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 208.
- ^ Quoted from Günter Richter: Between Revolution and Forging an Empire. In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Ed.): History of Berlin. Vol. 2: From the March Revolution to the Present. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 978-3-406-31592-3 , pp. 605-687, here: p. 616.
- ^ Günter Richter: Between Revolution and Forging an Empire In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Ed.): Geschichte Berlins. Vol. 2: From the March Revolution to the Present. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 978-3406315923 . Pp. 605-687, here: p. 616.
- ^ A b Helmut Altrichter: Russland 1917: A country in search of itself. Schöningh, Paderborn 1997, ISBN 978-3-506-70303-3 , p. 15.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 . P. 114.
- ↑ Michael Schwibbe: Time travel: 1200 years of living in Berlin. Zeitreisen-Verlag. Bochum 2008, ISBN 978-3-00-024613-5 , p. 104.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 229.
- ^ Ilja Mieck: Prussia from 1807 to 1850: Reforms, Restoration and Revolution. In: Otto Büsch (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Prussischen Geschichte. Vol. 2: The 19th century and major topics in the history of Prussia. De Gruyter, Berlin et al. 1992, ISBN 978-3-11-083957-9 , pp. 3-292, here: p. 254.
- ↑ Norbert Friedrich: On the way to the Basic Law. Contributions to the constitutional understanding of modern Protestantism. Lit, Münster 1999, ISBN 3-8258-4224-X . P. 39.
- ↑ Walter Bussmann: From the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation to the foundation of the German Empire. In the S. (Ed.): Handbook of European history. Vol. 5. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1981, ISBN 3-12-907570-4 , pp. 404-615, here: p. 499
- ↑ Günter Richter: Between Revolution and Forging an Empire In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Hrsg.): Geschichte Berlins. Vol. 2: From the March Revolution to the Present. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 978-3406315923 . Pp. 605-687, here: p. 634.
- ↑ Volker Sellin: The Century of Restorations: 1814–1906. Oldenbourg, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-486-76504-5 , p. 68.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 . P. 118.
- ↑ Dieter Hein: The revolution of 1848/49. 5th edition. Beck, Munich 2015, ISBN 978-3-406-45119-5 .
- ^ Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Beck, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-66080-1 . P. 115.
- ↑ Volker Sellin: The Century of Restorations: 1814–1906. Oldenbourg, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-486-76504-5 , p. 69.
- ^ Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west . Volume 1: German history from the end of the Old Reich to the fall of the Weimar Republic. CH Beck, Munich 2000, p. 115.
- ^ Adam Zamoyski: Phantoms of Terror. Fear of the Revolution and the Suppression of Freedom, 1789–1848. Beck, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-406-69766-1 , p. 535.
- ↑ Norbert Friedrich: On the way to the Basic Law. Contributions to the constitutional understanding of modern Protestantism. Lit, Münster 1999, ISBN 3-8258-4224-X . P. 40.
- ↑ a b c Uwe A. Oster: Prussia: History of a Kingdom. Piper, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-492-05191-0 , p. 289.
- ^ Rolf Thomas Senn: In Arcadia. Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. A biographical land survey. Lukas Verlag, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-86732-163-1 , p. 368.
- ↑ Uwe A. Oster: Prussia: History of a Kingdom. Piper, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-492-05191-0 , p. 293.
- ↑ Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , p. 562.
- ↑ People, Empire and Nation. Texts on the unity of Germany in the state, economy and society. Edited by Gilbert Krebs and Bernard Poloni. Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, Paris 1994, ISBN 2-910212-02-5 , p. 120.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 127.
- ↑ Brigitte Beier: The Chronicle of the Germans. 2nd, updated and expanded new edition. Wissenmedia Verlag, Gütersloh 2009, ISBN 978-3-577-14387-5 , p. 229.
- ↑ Günter Richter: Between Revolution and Forging an Empire In: Wolfgang Ribbe (Hrsg.): Geschichte Berlins. Vol. 2: From the March Revolution to the Present. Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 978-3406315923 . Pp. 605-687, here: p. 640.
- ↑ Maja Galle: The Archangel Michael in the German art of the 19th century. Utz, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-8316-0185-2 , p. 102.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 131.
- ↑ Volker Ruhland: The Dresden May Uprising of 1848/49 In: Dresdner Hefte. Dresden 1995.
- ^ Werner Greiling: Between March riots and May uprising. In: King John of Saxony. Between two worlds. Published by the Saxon Castle Administration and the Weesenstein State Castle Company. Stekovics, Halle an der Saale 2001, ISBN 3-932863-64-X , pp. 323–326, here: p. 333.
- ^ Werner Greiling: Between March riots and May uprising. In: King John of Saxony. Between two worlds. Published by the Saxon Castle Administration and the Weesenstein State Castle Company. Stekovics, Halle an der Saale 2001, ISBN 3-932863-64-X , pp. 323–326, here: p. 333.
- ↑ Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall. 1600-1947. Munich 2007. ISBN 978-3421053923 . P. 567
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 132.
- ^ Tim Ostermann: The constitutional position of the German emperor after the imperial constitution. Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2009, p. 13.
- ↑ Walter Bussmann: From the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation to the foundation of the German Empire. In the S. (Ed.): Handbook of European history. Vol. 5. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1981, ISBN 3-12-907570-4 , pp. 404-615, here: p. 513
- ↑ Ernst Willi Hansen: The time until 1914: From the war cluster to the mass army. ISBN 978-3-486-59009-8 . P. 294
- ^ Uwe A Oster: Prussia. Story of a kingdom. Piper, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-492-05191-0 , p. 295.
- ↑ An outline of the fighting in Wilhelm Blos : The German Revolution. History of the German movement from 1848 and 1849. Dietz, Stuttgart 1893, pp. 565–600, numbers pp. 565, 575.
- ^ Kurt Hochstuhl: Scene of the revolution in Baden. Gernsbach 1847–1849. Katz, Gernsbach 1997, ISBN 3-925825-68-1 , p. 131.
- ^ Frank Büttner: Peter Cornelius. Frescoes and fresco projects. Steiner, Wiesbaden, ISBN 978-3-515-03258-2 , p. 420.
- ^ Maren Kuhn-Rehfus : The integration of Hohenzollern in Prussia in expansion and integration. To incorporate newly acquired territories into the Prussian state. Böhlau. Vienna 1995. ISBN 3412066834 . P. 303.
- ↑ Ulrich Feldhahn: Hohenzollern Castle: Historical photographs 1850-1970. Sutton, Erfurt 2014, ISBN 978-3-95400-405-8 , p. 11. Nine researchers are investigating the state's history. The contributions appear in the current edition of the quarterly journal “Hohenzollerische Heimat” published by the history association. In: Schwäbische Zeitung. July 7, 2011.
- ^ Hagen Schulze : Prussia from 1850 to 1871. Constitutional state and establishment of an empire. In: Otto Büsch (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Prussischen Geschichte. Vol. 2: The 19th century and major themes in the history of Prussia. De Gruyter, Berlin et al. 1992, ISBN 978-3-11-083957-9 , pp. 293-372, here: p. 303.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 141.
- ↑ Hagen Schulze: Prussia from 1850 to 1871. Constitutional state and establishment of an empire. In: Otto Büsch (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Prussischen Geschichte. Vol. 2: The 19th century and major themes in the history of Prussia. De Gruyter, Berlin et al. 1992, ISBN 978-3-11-083957-9 , pp. 293-372, here: p. 303; What is left of Prussia? In conversation with Frank-Lothar Kroll
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 141.
- ^ Hans-Hermann Schrader: Legal concept and legal development of loyalty to the constitution in the public service. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1985, ISBN 978-3-428-05934-8 . P. 157.
- ↑ Detlef Wienecke-Janz: The great chronicle world history: Industrialization and national awakening. knowledgemedia. Gütersloh / Munich 2008. ISBN 978-3577090735 . P. 46.
- ↑ Johannes Willms: Nationalism without a nation: German history from 1789-1914. Claassen, Düsseldorf 1983, ISBN 3-546-49695-7 .
- ↑ a b c Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , pp. 570f.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 301.
- ↑ Volker Ullrich. Otto von Bismarck. Anaconda. Cologne 2015. ISBN 978-3-499-50602-4 . P. 67.
- ^ Maren Goltz: Duke Georg II of Saxe-Meiningen (1826-1914). Culture as a strategy of assertion? Böhlau, Cologne 2015, ISBN 978-3-412-50151-8 , p. 59.
- ↑ Henning Krüger: Between Coastal Defense and World Politics: The Political History of the Prussian Navy 1848 to 1867. Winkler, Bochum 2008, ISBN 978-3-89911-096-8 , p. 113.
- ↑ Henning Krüger: Between Coastal Defense and World Politics: The Political History of the Prussian Navy 1848 to 1867. Winkler, Bochum 2008, ISBN 978-3-89911-096-8 , p. 113.
- ↑ Stefan Appelius, Bernd Feuerlohn: The brown city by the sea: Wilhelmshaven's way into dictatorship. VSA-Verlag, Hamburg 1985, ISBN 3-87975-332-6 , p. 12.
- ^ A b Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 152.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 154.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 . P. 162.
- ↑ The great chronicle world history: Industrialization and national awakening. knowledgemedia. 2008. ISBN 978-3-577-09073-5 . P. 117.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 164.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., 1795–1861: Psychopathology and History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 . P. 20.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 165.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Personality, office and illness. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 3-930850-67-2 , pp. 91–119, here: p. 116.
- ↑ Friedrich Lenger: Industrial Revolution and National State Foundation (1849-1870s). Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-608-60015-9 , p. 281.
- ^ Andreas Kitschke: The churches of the Potsdam cultural landscape. P. 201
- ^ Walter Bußmann: Between Prussia and Germany. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. A biography. Settlers. Munich 1996. ISBN 978-3-442-12831-0 . P. 472
- ^ Wolfram Letzner: Berlin - a biography. People and fates from the Ascanians to Helmut Kohl and the capital of Germany. Nünnerich Asmus Verlag & Media GmbH, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-37-4 .
- ↑ Jörg Meiner: The drawing king: Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia
- ^ Eva Börsch-Supan: Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Working for King Friedrich Wilhelm III. of Prussia and Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm (IV.). German art publisher. Berlin / Munich 2011.
- ↑ Catharina Hasenclever and Jörg Meiner in conversation with David E. Barclay Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Of Prussia: Politics and Architecture.
- ↑ Potsdam and Friedrich: The invention of his city. Commissioned by the state capital Potsdam, Potsdam Museum - Forum for Art and History, edited by Jutta Götzmann. Hirmer, Munich 2012 ISBN 978-3-7774-5541-9 . P. 166.
- ^ Anke Reiss: Reception of early Christian art in the 19th and early 20th centuries. A contribution to the history of Christian archeology and historicism. Röll, Dettelbach 2008, ISBN 978-3-89754-274-7 , p. 123.
- ↑ Potsdam and Friedrich: The invention of his city. Commissioned by the state capital Potsdam, Potsdam Museum - Forum for Art and History, edited by Jutta Götzmann. Hirmer, Munich 2012 ISBN 978-3-7774-5541-9 . P. 166.
- ^ Joachim Mehlhausen: Vestigia Verbi: Essays on the history of Protestant theology. De Gruyter, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-11-015053-0 , p. 255.
- ↑ Dagmar Klose: The formation of modern structures in society and the state of the early modern period. Universitätsverlag Potsdam, Potsdam 2010, ISBN 978-3-86956-013-7 . P. 269.
- ^ Christiane Petri: Potsdam and surroundings. Symbol of Prussia's splendor and glory. DuMont, Cologne 2000, ISBN 978-3-7701-6610-7 , p. 132.
- ^ Christiane Petri: Potsdam and surroundings. Symbol of Prussia's splendor and glory. DuMont, Cologne 2000, ISBN 978-3-7701-6610-7 , p. 145.
- ^ Bärbel Beinhauer-Köhler: Mosques in Germany: religious homeland and social challenge. Beck, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-58423-7 , p. 18.
- ^ Lutz Engelskirchen: Monument in the political space. The Kaiser Wilhelm Monument at the Deutsches Eck in its century. Lit, Berlin et al. 2016, ISBN 978-3-643-13348-9 , p. 105.
- ^ Ingrid Bátori: History of the City of Koblenz. From the French city to the present. Theiss, Darmstadt 1993, ISBN 978-3-8062-1036-1 , p. 496.
- ↑ Jan Werquet: Historicism and Representation. The building policy of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-422-06923-7 , p. 306.
- ^ Richard Hörner: Stolzenfels Castle: Stolzenfels Castle. Prussia and a Rheinburg: history, building history, architecture, furnishings, use. An introduction. SCL, Wörth am Rhein 2005, ISBN 978-3-938846-21-6 , p. 32.
- ↑ Jan Werquet: A "historical basis" for the Prussian state. The Rhine Province in the context of the construction companies of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Jörg Meiner, Jan Werquet (Ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Von Preußen. Politics - Art - Ideal. Lukas-Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86732-176-1 , pp. 81–98, here: p. 92.
- ^ Wilfried Hansmann: Augustusburg Castle in Brühl. Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft, Worms 2002, ISBN 3-88462-188-2 , p. 38.
- ↑ Wolfgang Ribbe: History of Berlin: From early history to industrialization. 2002. Third edition. P. 478
- ^ Eva Börsch-Supan: Friedrich Wilhelm IV designed the intellectual center of Berlin. Plans for the cathedral, the palace chapel and the Museum Island. In: Jörg Meiner, Jan Werquet (Ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Of Prussia. Politics - Art - Ideal. Lukas-Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86732-176-1 , pp. 47–62, here: p. 47.
- ↑ Jörg Meiner, Jan Werquet: Politics, Art, Ideal. King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia as a "state artist" between the original catastrophe and restoration. In this. (Ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia: Politics - Art - Ideal. Lukas Verlag, Berlin 2014, pp. 11–17, here: pp. 11 ff.
- ^ Edda Neumann: Reclams City Guide Berlin: Architecture and Art. Ditzingen 2015, ISBN 978-3150193044 . P. 136.
- ^ Entry by Ludwig Persius in his diary on November 5, 1844; reproduced from: Gregor Geismeier: Stüler's "meaningful monuments" in the market. In: The Mark Brandenburg. Marika Großer Verlag, Berlin 1999, issue 35, p. 8 (The architect of King Friedrich August Stüler).
- ↑ The term "sand bells" goes back to Frederick the Great : "Forester, why are the sand bells not sown?" (Reise through Rhinluch , 1779).
- ^ Attila Schauschitz: Berlin miniatures. Berlin 2014. ISBN 978-3844294002 , p. 84.
- ^ Eva Börsch-Supan: Berlin architecture after Schinkel 1840-1870. Prestel-Verlag, Munich 1977, ISBN 3-7913-0050-4 , p. 697 ff.
- ^ Anne Franzkowiak: Fontane and his century. Exhibition from September 11, 1998 to January 17, 1999 in the Märkisches Museum. Henschel City Museum Foundation , Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-89487-309-4 , p. 217.
- ^ Paul Haake: Johann Peter Friedrich Ancillon and the Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. Oldenbourg, Munich 1920, p. 19 f.
- ↑ Cf. Catharina Hasenclever: Gotisches Mittelalter und Gottesgnadentum in the drawings of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Legitimacy of rule between revolution and restoration (= sources and research on Brandenburg and Prussian history. Volume 30). Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-428-11916-9 , p. 41 f.
- ↑ Cf. Catharina Hasenclever: Gotisches Mittelalter und Gottesgnadentum in the drawings of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Legitimation of rule between revolution and restoration (= sources and research on Brandenburg and Prussian history. Volume 30). Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-428-11916-9 , p. 42.
- ↑ See Albert Geyer: King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia as an architect. In: Deutsche Bauzeitung. 56, 1922, pp. 525-562.
- ↑ Johann PF Ancillon listed without direct reference to the source by: Paul Haake: Johann Peter Friedrich Ancillon and Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. In: Historical Library. Volume 42, 1920, p. 19 f.
- ^ Franz Herre: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The other Prussian king. Katz, Gernsbach 2007, ISBN 978-3-938047-22-4 , p. 89.
- ↑ a b David E. Barclay: Anarchy and good will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , p. 143.
- ^ Wolfram Siemann: The German Revolution of 1848/49. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1985, ISBN 3-518-11266-X , p. 192.
- ^ Friedrich Engels: Friedrich Wilhelm IV., King of Prussia. In: Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels: Works. Dietz Verlag, Berlin. Volume 1. Berlin / GDR. 1976, pp. 446-453 ( online , accessed July 16, 2017).
- ↑ Ludwig Pfau: Lied vom Gottesgnadenfritz on ludwig-pfau.de, accessed on July 16, 2017.
- ↑ Heinrich Heine: The crowd does it on the website of the University of Mainz, accessed on July 16, 2017.
- ↑ a b Uwe A. Oster: Prussia. Story of a kingdom. Piper, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-492-05191-0 , p. 266.
- ↑ Quoted from Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 2.
- ↑ Jörg my and Jan Werquet: politics, art, Ideal. King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia as a "state artist" between the original catastrophe and restoration. In this. (Ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia: Politics - Art - Ideal. Lukas Verlag, Berlin 2014, p. 17; Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 2.
- ^ Frank-Lothar Kroll: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the state thinking of the German romanticism. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-7678-0778-5 , p. 3.
- ^ Frank Lothar Kroll: History with political intent. Hans Joachim Schoeps and Prussia. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13434-2 . P. 36.
- ^ Heinrich Lutz: Between Habsburg and Prussia. Germany 1815–1866. Siedler, Berlin 1994, ISBN 978-3-442-75525-7 , p. 205.
- ↑ Quoted from Günther Grünthal: Constitutional thinking and government style. Political order, revolution and political practice in the vicinity of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 978-3-930850-67-9 , pp. 123-143, here: pp. 129 ff.
- ^ Günther Grünthal: Constitutional thinking and style of government. Political order, revolution and political practice in the vicinity of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 978-3-930850-67-9 , pp. 123-143, here: pp. 129 ff.
- ↑ Gerd Heinrich: History of Prussia. State and dynasty. Propylaeen, Frankfurt am Main 1981, ISBN 3-549-07620-7 , p. 346.
- ^ David E. Barclay: King, Kingship, Court and Prussian Society in the time of Friedrich Wilhelm IV (1840–1861). In: Otto Büsch. (Ed.): Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Contributions to a colloquium. Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1987, ISBN 3-7678-0709-2 , pp. 1–21, here: p. 15.
- ↑ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and Good Will. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Settlers. Berlin 1995. ISBN 3-88680-463-1 . P. 12.
- ^ David E. Barclay: Anarchy and good will: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. And the Prussian monarchy. Siedler, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-88680-463-1 , pp. 402-405.
- ↑ Alexander Demandt: Unhappened story. A treatise on the question: What would have happened if ...? 4th, supplemented edition. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2001, ISBN 978-3-525-34022-6 , p. 119.
- ↑ Christopher Clark: Prussia. Rise and fall 1600–1947. Pantheon, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-570-55060-1 , p. 570.
- ^ Ilja Mieck: Prussia from 1807 to 1850: Reforms, Restoration and Revolution. In: Otto Büsch (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Prussischen Geschichte. Vol. 2: The 19th century and major topics in the history of Prussia. De Gruyter, Berlin et al. 1992, ISBN 978-3-11-083957-9 . Pp. 3–292, here: p. 203.
- ↑ Ursula Püschel : Bettina von Arnim's September letters to Friedrich Wilhelm IV. From 1848. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (ed.): The misunderstood Monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 3-930850-67-2 , pp. 355-412, here: p. 359.
- ↑ See the remarks by Julius H. Schoeps: Doktrinär des Konservatismus? Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach and political thinking in the age of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (Ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1997, ISBN 978-3-930850-67-9 , pp. 413-426.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Göttingen 1992. ISBN 3-525-36229-3 . P. 14.
- ↑ Dirk Blasius: Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1795–1861. Psychopathology and history. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-525-36229-3 . P. 219.
- ^ Günther Grünthal: Constitutional thinking and style of government. Political order, revolution and political practice in the vicinity of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In: Peter Krüger, Julius H. Schoeps (ed.): The misunderstood monarch. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In his time. Potsdam 1997, ISBN 978-3-930850-67-9 , pp. 123-143, here: pp. 129 ff.
- ^ Lothar Hammer: The Hohenzollern Bridge. And the German bridge architecture of the imperial era. Bachem Verlag, Cologne 1997, ISBN 978-3-7616-1300-9 . P. 51.
- ^ Christiane Petri: Potsdam and surroundings. Symbol of Prussia's splendor and glory. DuMont, Cologne 2000, ISBN 978-3-7701-6610-7 , p. 133.
- ^ Angelika Wesenberg: National Gallery Berlin. The XIX. Century. Seemann, Leipzig 2015, ISBN 978-3-86502-347-6 , p. 181.
| predecessor | Office | successor |
|---|---|---|
| Friedrich Wilhelm III. |
King of Prussia 1840–1861 |
Wilhelm I. |
| personal data | |
|---|---|
| SURNAME | Friedrich Wilhelm IV. |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | King of Prussia (1840–1861) |
| DATE OF BIRTH | October 15, 1795 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Berlin |
| DATE OF DEATH | January 2, 1861 |
| Place of death | Potsdam |