List of the oldest universities

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Henricus de Alemannia in front of his students. Illumination from the 2nd half of the 14th century

The list of the oldest universities includes all universities founded up to 1800 in Europe and in the overseas European colonies, regardless of whether the university was later dissolved. The year in which the university privilege was granted is considered the foundation date. Predecessor institutions and later start-ups are noted.

In the Middle Ages and in the early modern period, in addition to financial resources from the city and / or a prince, a papal bull and a university privilege for the sovereign were necessary for the establishment of a university , in the Holy Roman Empire of the emperor . The earliest European universities up to the early 13th century make an exception to this, since, according to today's linguistic usage, these were often rather individual faculties that slowly developed into universities without a precise year of foundation being able to be determined.

Universities in Europe

As early as the 13th century, the University of Naples was the first university in Europe to teach without a papal bull. It was not until the 16th century that other Lutheran universities were founded without a papal bull. In addition, numerous Calvinist colleges joined the universities, which offered quasi-university training but did not have imperial university privilege and were therefore not allowed to award academic degrees . These universities are not included in the list.

Non-European, non-colonial teaching institutions such as the Islamic Madaris since the 9th century are not included in this list for the sake of simplicity, since the term university is a genuinely Christian-European one, the application of which to a large part of the history of these institutions is controversial, even if these have meanwhile become universities, partly adopting European structures, and the application of the term university to European teaching institutions, especially before the 13th century, is consistently problematic. The teaching institutions with the longest prehistory outside of Europe that are now considered universities include the University of Fez , the al-Azhar University in Cairo , the al-Mustansiriyya University in Baghdad , Sankoré Madrasah in Timbuktu , the Sungkyunkwan University in Seoul , and the University of Istanbul and in a sense the University of Constantinople .

List of universities

Founded university history
9th century Salerno University status questionable; medical school
962 Parma first university in Italy; initially only studies in the liberal arts, law and medical faculties added in the 13th century; Closed and reopened several times between the 14th and 19th centuries
Late 11th century Bologna exact dating of the foundation not possible; official year of foundation 1088; There is evidence that there was a law school at the end of the 11th century; gradual development to university
Early 13th century Paris today divided into different autonomous universities
Early 13th century Oxford despite evidence of teaching activity around 1096, exact dating of the foundation is not possible; In 1167, Henry II banned English students from studying in Paris, followed by rapid growth in the Oxford school; Gradual development to a university
1204 Vicenza End after 1209
1208 Palencia founded by Alfonso VIII of Castile ; dissolved around 1250
1209-1225 / 1284 Cambridge According to legend, the university was founded in 1209 when lecturers and students left Oxford, but the official founding date is that of the first college ( Peterhouse ) in 1284
Early 13th century Montpellier Medical education since 1180, first medical school in France since 1220; 1289 confirmation by Pope Nicholas IV as university; today divided into three autonomous universities
1215 Arezzo End around 1260, re-establishment in 1355, dissolution around 1373
1218/19 Salamanca oldest university in Spain ; from the Leonese King Alfonso IX. founded
1222 Padua first documentary mention, exact year of foundation cannot be determined
1224 Naples Foundation by Friedrich II.
1228 Vercelli Late 14th century
1229 Toulouse initially founded by Louis the Holy Law Faculty
1240 Siena End of 1252, re-establishment in 1357
1245 Study of the Roman Curia
1248 Piacenza Opening in question, relocation of the University of Pavia to Piacenza 1398–1402
around 1250 Angers Recognition as studium generale 1337
1254-1260 Seville Foundation of a course of study with dubious university status by the King and Pope; End around 1270
1261 Northampton Founding by Heinrich III. which dissolved the university in 1265, third English university
Late 13th century Valladolid Recognition as studium generale 1346
1290 Lisbon founded by King Dionysius (Dinis) as studium generale ; Relocation to Coimbra 1308–1338 and 1354–1377; permanent move to Coimbra in 1537; Re-establishment in 1911
1300 Lleida Founding by Jacob II ; Closed in 1717; Established in 1991
1303 Avignon Bloom at the time of the Avignon Papacy 1309–1377
1303 Rome End of the 14th century; Reopened in 1431
1306 Orleans Founded in 1230 only as a law school; End of the 18th century; Reopening in 1960
1308 Perugia papal bull by Pope Clement V ; since the 12th century several universitates scholiarum with studium generale ; other papal bulls between 1316 and 1321; 1355 Confirmation of the university status by the imperial bull of Emperor Charles IV and declaration of the status of the Imperial University
1308 Coimbra by relocating the University of Lisbon
1318 Treviso Probably end of the 14th century; Reopened in 1431
1332 Cahors founded by Pope John XXII.
1339 Grenoble Late mid-14th century
1339 Verona Studies with dubious university status , dissolution in the 15th century
1343 Pisa End around 1360; Reopened in the early 15th century
1346 Valladolid
1348 Prague first Central European university or first university in the Holy Roman Empire north of the Alps, first teachers mainly Germans and Italians; papal bull by Clement VI. 1347, letter of foundation from Emperor Charles IV. 1348
1349 Florence Relocation to Pisa in 1472
1350 Perpignan founded by King Peter IV of Aragón ; Closed in 1794, re-established in 1971
1354 Huesca End of the first half of the 15th century; Reopened in 1464
1361 Pavia Founder Emperor Charles IV on April 13, 1361, relocation to Piacenza 1398; Reopening in 1412
1364 Krakow Late around 1370; Reopened in 1397
1365 orange Founder Emperor Charles IV on June 4, 1365
1365 Vienna Founding by Duke Rudolf IV. , Oldest still existing university in the German-speaking area
1367 Five churches partial dissolution 1376; Re-establishment in today's Pécs 2000
1369 Lucca founded by Emperor Charles IV on June 6, 1369, paradoxically in the year Lucca became an independent city republic
1380 Dyrrachium Founded in 1380; replaced by the University of Zadar
1386 Heidelberg Founding by Elector Ruprecht I (founding privilege of Pope Urban VI on October 23, 1385); oldest university in Germany with continuous teaching
1388 Cologne General studies of the religious orders since 1248 ( Dominican founded by Albertus Magnus ); Foundation of the university by the city of Cologne on May 21, 1388 with the approval of Pope Urban VI. ; Closed by the French in 1798; In 1919 the city re-established it as the University of Cologne with the approval of the Prussian government
1391 Ferrara Late 1394; Reopened in 1430
1392 Erfurt Founding by the city of Erfurt (founding privileges of Pope Clemens VII. From 1379 and furthermore from Pope Urban VI. From May 4, 1389); 1392 commencement of teaching; Closed in 1816, re-established in 1994
1395 Buda Late 1400s; Reopening in 1410
1396 Zadar Founded as Universitas Iadertina ; Replaced by a lycée in 1807 ; 2002 re-establishment
1402 Wurzburg 1413 closed; Newly founded in 1582
1404 Turin Teaching was temporarily interrupted in 1536
1409 Leipzig The second oldest university in Germany with continuous teaching (after Heidelberg), founded after an exodus of masters and scholars from the University of Prague
1409 Aix-en-Provence founded by Ludwig II , the Duke of Provence; Dissolved in 1791 in favor of the independence of the individual faculties; since 1969 University of Aix-Marseille
1411 St. Andrews oldest university in Scotland and third oldest English-speaking university; Founding by papal bull by antipope Benedict XIII.
1412-1420 Parma with the claim general studies to be
1419 Rostock founded with a papal bull by Pope Martin V by the dukes Johann IV and Albrecht V of Mecklenburg and the council of the Hanseatic City of Rostock as the first university in northern Germany and in the entire Baltic region. By ecclesiastical pressure 1437–1443 in Greifswald , 1487–1488 in Lübeck .
1422 Dole founded by Philip the Good ; Transferred to Besançon by Louis XIV in 1678
1425 Lions Disbanded in 1797 under the ordinance of the National Convention of September 15, 1793, which closed all colleges and universities in the French Republic. It was later reopened as the University of Leuven (1817–1835), which was then replaced in 1834 by the Catholic University of Mechelen (called the Leuven Catholic University after the Reich University was closed and the headquarters were relocated). In 1968 this was divided into a French and a Dutch language university.
1431 Poitiers founded by King Charles VII of France with a papal bull from Pope Eugene IV with faculties for theology , martial law , civil law , medicine and art . In the 16th century, the University of Poitiers became the second most important university in France alongside the University of Paris
1432 Caen founded by Heinrich VI. of England , in 1452 by the French king Charles VII. confirmed
1441 Bordeaux papal bull of Pope Eugen IV; Dissolved in 1793; Newly founded in 1896; 1968 divided into four universities
1444 Catania founded by Alfonso V of Aragon , papal bull of Eugene IV.
1446 Girona royal charter; University activity only in the 16th century
1450 Barcelona founded by King Alfonso the Magnanimous
1451 Glasgow founded on the proposal of King James II with a papal bull from Pope Nicholas V ; second oldest university in Scotland and fourth oldest in Great Britain
1452 Valence founded by Louis XI. ; Disbanded in 1792
1456 Greifswald founded on the initiative of the mayor (and first rector) Heinrich Rubenow with papal ( Calixt III ) and imperial ( Friedrich III ) approval under the protection of the Pomeranian Duke Wartislaw IX.
1457 Freiburg in Breisgau founded by the Austrian Archduke Albrecht VI.
1459 Basel oldest university in Switzerland; Foundation in connection with the Basel Council ; papal bull of Pope Pius II on November 12, 1459; Opening on April 4, 1460
1459 Ingolstadt founded by Duke Ludwig the Rich with a bull from Pope Pius II ; only opened in 1472 due to financial difficulties; 1800–1826 seat of Ludovico Maximilianea in Landshut; Relocated to Munich in 1826, where it continues to exist as the Ludwig Maximilians University
1460 Nantes founded by Duke Francis II of Brittany and with a bull by Pope Pius II.
1464 Bourges founded by Louis XI.
1465 Pressburg Dissolution at the end of the 15th century
1470 Venice Medical college with the right to award doctorates
1471 Genoa Opening in 1513
1472 Munich Ingolstadt 1472, later LMU Munich
1473 trier Founded by the city of Trier on the initiative of Archbishop Jakob I von Sierck of Trier with a bull from Pope Nicholas V ; Established in 1970
1474 Zaragoza founded by King Ferdinand I of Sicily with a bull from Pope Sixtus IV.
1475 Copenhagen founded by Christian I with bull from Pope Sixtus IV.
1477 Mainz founded by the Archbishop of Mainz, Elector and Imperial Chancellor Diether von Isenburg ; 1946 re-founded as Johannes Gutenberg University
1477 Tübingen Foundation of Count Eberhard im Barte with a bull from Pope Sixtus IV.
1477 Uppsala founded by Archbishop Jakob Ulfsson and the regent Sten Sture the Elder
1483 Palma de Mallorca
1489 Sigüenza 1483 as college (papal bull of Sixtus IV. ), 1489 as university ( Innocent VIII. ); Disbanded in 1837
1495 Aberdeen Foundation of King's College; 1593 Marischal College; Amalgamation in 1860
1498 Frankfurt (Oder) Opening in 1506; Closed in 1811; 1992 re-establishment
1499 Alcalá today Complutense University of Madrid
1500 Valencia Foundation by Pope Alexander VI. and King Ferdinand II ; Previous institution 1416–1498
1502 Wittenberg founded by Elector Friedrich III. the wise men of Saxony ; through the teaching activities of Martin Luther (appointed in 1508) most important training center of the Reformation ; Closed in 1813, in 1817 with the University of Halle merged
1505 Seville papal bull by Pope Julius II.
1521 Toledo
1526 Santiago de Compostela papal bull by Clement VII ; academic school since 1495; 1504 Recognition by Julius II.
1527 Marburg founded by Landgrave Philipp the Magnanimous as a Protestant university; 1541 university privilege granted by Emperor Charles V.
1531 Granada founded on the initiative of Emperor Charles V with a papal bull from Clement VIII ; Continuation of the Arab University of La Madraza
1534 Sahagún
1538 Santo Domingo first university on the American continent ; since 1518 studies generals of the Dominican order, 1538 Universidad Santo Tomás de Aquino through papal bull of Paul III. , 1558 confirmed by the imperial decree of Charles V , closed in 1823
1539 Nîmes Huguenot university foundation
1540 Macerata papal bull by Pope Paul III.
1540 Oñati Founded in Hernani , moved to Oñati in 1548 , closed in 1901
1542 Baeza
1542 Tournon
1544 Koenigsberg founded by Duke Albrecht I of Brandenburg-Ansbach as a Lutheran university; Königsberg University was the first university to have neither the emperor nor the pope's privilege, but in 1560 it received a Polish privilege
1547 Gandía Closed in 1772 when the Jesuit order was dissolved
1548 Reims on the advice of the Cardinal of Lorraine by Pope Paul III. elevated to university; Dissolved in 1793; Re-establishment in 1971
1548 Messina Law school since the 13th century
1548/49 Osuna
1550 Almagro
1551 Rome
1551 Lima oldest university in Peru
1551 Tortosa
1552 Orihuela
1553 Mexico city oldest university in Mexico ; Disbanded in 1865, re-established in 1910
1553 Dillingen Founded in 1549 as "Collegium S. Hieronymi" by Cardinal Otto Truchsess von Waldburg and in 1551 by Pope Julius III. elevated to university, privilege of Emperor Charles V in 1553
1555 Burgo de Osma
1555 Évora founded by Cardinal Heinrich I , papal bull of Pope Paul IV ; carried by the Society of Jesus
1556 Milan Established in 1923
1558 Jena 1547 founded as a high school by Elector Johann Friedrich von Sachsen ; Imperial university privilege by Ferdinand I.
1559 Nice
1559/60 Douai founded by Philip II of Spain , papal bull by Paul IV , confirmed by Pius IV in 1560
1559 Geneva founded by John Calvin as an academy; University rank since 1873
1560 Mondoví
1562 Ancona
1565 Estella
1568 Braunsberg
1572 Pont-à-Mousson
1573 Olomouc Founded in 1566 as a Jesuit seminary
1574 Oviedo
1575/76 Helmstedt first re-establishment of a Protestant university in northern Germany; founded by Duke Julius von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel ; Closed in 1810
1575 Suffer oldest university in the Netherlands , of William I of Orange-Nassau founded
1576 Ávila
1578 Palermo Medical and law school since 1498; Disbanded in 1767, re-established in 1806
1578/79 Vilnius oldest Baltic university; Closed 1832-1919 and 1943-44
1580 Santo Tomás oldest Colombian university;
1582/83 Edinburgh from Jacob VI. founded without a papal bull
1583 Orthez
1585 Fermo
1585 Franeker as the second oldest university in the Netherlands founded by the province of Friesland , abolished by the French in 1811.
1585/86 Graz founded by Archduke Charles II of Inner Austria and handed over to the Societas Jesu
1587 El Escorial
1592 Dublin Founding of Trinity College
1592 Malta Foundation of the Jesuit College Millitense ; state university since 1769
1594 Zamość
1595 Cebu city oldest university in the Philippines
1596/1604 Saumur
1599/1602 Sedan
1598 Montauban
1599 Vich
1601 The
1606 Cagliari
1606 Fuerth Yeshiva, Jewish college initially only for training as a rabbi. Disbanded in 1829.
1607 to water founded by Landgrave Ludwig V of Hessen-Darmstadt as a Lutheran university, since the neighboring Marburg University had become Calvinist with the division of the state of Hesse in 1605 ; imperial patent by Rudolf II.
1611 Manila going back to the University of Cebu ; worn by the Dominican order; appointed university by Pope Innocent X.
1612/14 Groningen founded by Ubbo Emmius
1614 Paderborn founded by Dietrich IV von Fürstenberg ; 1972 re-establishment
1614 Solsona
1617 Molsheim
1617 Sassari by the merchant Alessio Fontana founded and financed and initially from a Jesuit college headed
1619 Cordoba oldest university in Argentina
1619 Pamplona
1619 Rinteln First full Lutheran university founded in north-west Germany by Count Ernst zu Holstein-Schaumburg , closed in 1810
1621/85 Strasbourg emerged from the Protestant grammar school that Johannes Sturm founded in 1538; In 1556 the grammar school was raised to the rank of academy, in 1621 to a university
1622 Santiago de Chile oldest university in Chile
1620/25 Salzburg founded by Salzburg Prince Archbishop Paris Lodron ; Dissolved in 1810 and converted into a lyceum ; since 1850 university faculty; 1962 re-founded as a university
1623 Altdorf founded by the imperial city of Nuremberg ; Academy since 1575; Disbanded in 1809
1624 Sucre
1629 Osnabrück closed again in 1633; 1974 re-established
1632 Dorpat (Tartu) founded by King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden ; Closed in 1710; Re-founded in 1802 by the Russian Tsar Alexander I as a German-speaking university, Russian-speaking since the 1880s, and Estonian-speaking national university in the newly established Estonia since 1919.
1632 Kiev the oldest university in Ukraine; Closed in 1817; Founded again in 1992 as a modern university
1633 kassel Moved to Marburg in 1653; Founded in 1970 as the first comprehensive university in Germany
1635 Trnava (Tyrnau) Moved to Buda in 1777 ; today Lorand Eötvös University of Science in Budapest
1636 Utrecht
1636 Harvard oldest university in the USA
1640 Turku 1827 to Helsinki
1640 Harderwijk Closed in 1811
1647 Bamberg 1803 repealed in the course of secularization; Re-establishment in 1972
1653 Rosario founded in Bogotá , Colombia
1654 Duisburg founded by Elector Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg ; Dissolved in 1818; 1972 re-established as a comprehensive university
1655 Nijmegen 1923 re-establishment of a Catholic university
1657 Košice (Kosice) Emperor Leopold I founded
1661 Lviv the oldest continuously functioning university in Ukraine
1663 Laval oldest university in Canada
1665 Kiel by Duke Christian Albrecht of Holstein-Gottorf founded
1666/68 Lund since 1425 general studies
1668 innsbruck of Emperor Leopold I founded
1669 Zagreb oldest university in Croatia
1671 Montbeliard
1671 Urbino
1674 Linz 1966 re-establishment as a university, 1975 conversion into a university
1676 Guatemala City oldest university in Central America : founded by the Dominican order; Since 1562 there has been a preparatory college (Colegio Universitario de Santo Tomás) with courses in philosophy, law and theology
1691 Besançon
1693 Hall founded by Friedrich III. of Brandenburg
1693 Williamsburg, Virginia College of William and Mary
1701 Yale Established as a Collegiate School
1701 La Laguna Foundation of the Augustinian Order
1702 Wroclaw founded by Emperor Leopold I at the instigation of the Jesuits ; Merged with the University of Viadrina in 1811 ; first German university with a Catholic and a Protestant faculty
1721 Caracas oldest university in Venezuela
1722 Dijon founded by Louis XV.
1722 Pau
1714/17 Cervera 1717–1842 Transfer of the University of Barcelona to Cervera
1724 St. Petersburg founded by Tsar Peter I based on plans by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ; From 1803 to 1819 the university only existed as a pedagogical institute, since the academy of sciences linked to the university had dissolved
1727 Camerino founded as early as 1336; 1727 official recognition by Pope Benedict XIII.
1728 Havana oldest university in Cuba
1732/34 Fulda founded by Adolph von Dalberg ; Closed in 1805
1733 Rennes by changing the law faculty of the University of Nantes to Rennes ; Dissolved in 1793; 1806/09 re-establishment of individual faculties; University status since 1896
1737 Goettingen founded by Georg August, Elector of Hanover, Duke of Braunschweig-Lüneburg and, as Georg II, also King of Great Britain; imperial privilege by Charles VI.
1742/43 gain initially founded by Margrave Friedrich von Brandenburg-Bayreuth in Bayreuth , moved to Erlangen in 1743
1745 Braunschweig founded as Collegium Carolinum
1746 Princeton Founded as the College of New Jersey in Elizabeth , moved to Princeton in 1756
1748 Altamura founded by Charles III. from Spain
1754 new York Columbia University; Established as King's College
1755 Philadelphia founded by Benjamin Franklin as the College of Philadelphia ; First medical school in North America since 1765
1755 Moscow by Elizabeth I at the suggestion of Mikhail Lomonosov established
1760 Bützow founded by Duke Friedrich von Mecklenburg-Schwerin due to a dispute about the occupation of a theological chair at the University of Rostock in competition with and in close proximity to the latter; Disbanded again in 1789
1764 Providence Brown University; Established as the College of Rhode Island
1765 Corte Established in 1980
1766 New Brunswick (New Jersey) Rutgers University; Established as Queen's College
1768 Nancy Founded by the Dukes of Lorraine in Pont-à-Mousson , moved to Nancy in 1769
1770 Hanover, New Hampshire Dartmouth College
1772/73 Modena a previous institution existed in 1175–1338
1773 Istanbul founded as "Mühendishane-i Bahrî-i Hümâyûn"; today: "Istanbul Teknik Üniversitesi" (Turkish for Technical University of Istanbul )
1775 Clausthal Founded in 1775 as a one-year training course for miners and smelters; since 1864 royal mining academy; 1968 renamed "Technical University Clausthal"
1780 Muenster 1631 by Pope Urban VIII and Emperor Ferdinand II. Founding privileges for a university not implemented; renewed privilege in 1773 by Pope Clement XIV and Emperor Joseph II.
1781 Stuttgart Founded in 1770 as the Hohe Karlsschule by Duke Carl-Eugen von Württemberg. Promoted to university in 1781 by Emperor Joseph II . Closed in 1794. 1829 Founding of the United Real and Trade School, which had been a technical college since 1876 and was expanded into a university in 1967
1783 Murcia
1784 Bonn 1777 as the Electoral Cologne Academy in Bonn ; 1784 university privilege of Joseph II .; Repealed in 1798; 1818 by Friedrich Wilhelm III. re-established as a Prussian university
1785 Fredericton oldest English-speaking university in Canada
1789 Washington ( Georgetown ) founded by the Jesuit Father John Carroll ; Official recognition by Congress in 1814

See also

Universities
Schools and colleges

literature

  • Walter Rüegg (Hrsg.): History of the University in Europe . 3 volumes. Beck Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-36956-1 (Volume 2, p. 98 f. Contains an alphabetical list of the oldest European universities)
  • The universities in Europe up to the beginning of the 16th century and the universities in Central Europe from the beginning of the 16th century to the beginning of the 19th century. In: Atlas zur Geschichte. 1. Volume, Hermann Haack Geographisch-Kartographische Anstalt Gotha / Leipzig 1973, pp. 44, 53.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ George Makdisi: Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages. In: Studia Islamica , Vol. 32 (1970), pp. 255-264 (264):

    “Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the Middle Ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere. "

  2. ↑ Verger, Jacques: "Basics", in: Rüegg, Walter (Ed.): History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Mittelalter , CH Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-36952-9 , pp. 49-80 (49):

    “Today nobody doubts that what is generally understood by a university was a creation of the Middle Ages and first appeared at the turn of the 12th to the 13th century. Certainly other cultures that preceded the Western Middle Ages, such as the Roman Empire , Byzantium , Islam , or were completely alien to it, such as China , knew forms of higher education which, for the sake of simplicity, some historians called universities. On closer inspection, however, there are decisive differences between those higher schools and the western universities of the Middle Ages . Until conclusively proven otherwise, these remain the sole source of the model, which gradually spread across Europe and then across the world. It is actually a new institution that can only be defined on the basis of a historical analysis of its origin and development. "

  3. ^ Toby Huff: Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West. 2nd Edition. Cambridge 2003, pp. 133-139, 149-159, 179-189.
  4. ↑ La storia dell'Università di Parma. In: Università degli Studi di Parma. Retrieved February 20, 2017 (Italian).
  5. ↑ Simone Bordini, Piergiovanni Genoves: Università di Parma. Un millennio di storia . Ed .: Annamaria Cavalli. Monte Università Parma Editore, Parma 2016, ISBN 978-88-7847-500-7 (Italian).
  6. ↑ Anna Maria Tammaro (ed.): Verso l'internazionalizzazione della formazione in biblioteconomia e in scienze dell'informazione. Atti del Seminario internazionale, Parma, 18 March 2002 . Casalini Libri, Fiesole 2002, ISBN 978-88-85297-56-2 (Italian).
  7. ↑ Laurence Cawley: Why 'Oxbridgeton' never came to be . In: BBC News . September 11, 2016 ( bbc.com [accessed May 17, 2020]).
  8. ↑ History and Buildings. Retrieved May 17, 2018 (jp).
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