Moor

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Mohr is an outdated German-language term for people with dark skin . Historically (Old and Middle High German) it initially referred to residents of ancient and medieval North Africa ( Moors ), but as early as the Middle Ages it also generalized people with dark skin color, increasingly in this expanded meaning since the 16th century. In the real sense, however, people of North African descent were still associated with it and not those from sub-Saharan Africa. Grimm mentions Ethiops, Maurus, Maritanus and Mauritanus as appropriate names. The term is of pre-colonial origin.

The word has only been used rarely since the end of the 20th century, and if so, then in a historical or literary context or as part of names, e.g. B. as a coat of arms in heraldry . The designation and image of the Moor also found its way into numerous subsequent designations, for example in the field of fauna and flora . Pictorial representations of the Moor served as a company logo and in advertising for certain products, but also in the context of different customs .

Since around 1960, there has been evidence of an ambivalence between the word's historical development and its use as a stereotypical term that arouses a certain idea of ​​a black man , which led to discussions about his discriminatory character.

Language history

High medieval depiction of hell with a dark-skinned devil in the Hortus Deliciarum (manuscript around 1180)

The word is in Old High German of the 8th century in the form mōr , in Middle High German as mōr or mōre . It initially referred to a "resident of Mauritania (Morocco), Ethiopia", then also a person with dark skin, and is a borrowing from the Latin Maurus , "resident of the North African province of Mauritania , Maure , Northwest African ".

The Latin name Maurus "Maure", in turn, goes back to ancient Greek Μαῦρος Mauros , "inhabitant of Mauritania"; the ancient kingdom has nothing in common with today's West African state of Mauritania . The initial word is controversial. On the one hand it is traced back to a borrowing from Phoenician or from a Berber language , on the other hand it is derived from Greek μαυρός mauros "brown, black". That could mean ἀμαυρός amauros “dark, indistinct, difficult to see; blind, helpless ”. But this can also be a secondary education to the ethnic designation, because the word and meaning are only proven in later Greek. For William Shakespeare's play Othello, the Moor of Venice , written around 1603/04, a connection to the Greek μωρός mōros , “blunt; foolish, stupid ”, pointed out.

Both the simple mōr and hellemōr (" hell black ") were used as a synonym for the devil , who was then imagined with black skin. So wrote Walther von der Vogelweide , "Now teach him his black book, which has given him hell Mohr, and made him read it now faces." In the Middle High German was also between swarzer Mor ( "Maure with dark skin") and Mor ( "Maure") differentiated. From the 16th century onwards, “Mohr” was used exclusively as a synonym for a person with dark skin, while the Moor was referred to as such from then on. English moor , Italian and Spanish moro and French maure however, preserved the ethnic or geographic attribution.

When the term “Mohr” was increasingly replaced by “ Negro ” in the 18th century , a contrast developed between the noble Moors of a pre-colonial world of ideas and the colonial primitive Negro . Attempts by race theory to differentiate between black African “negroes” and “ white African ” “Moors” or to categorize the peoples of Africa with the help of the Hamit theory are out of date. The term "Mohr" for a person with dark skin is only used historically today. Like the expression “Negro”, “Mohr” is understood as a racially discriminatory expression. According to the cultural scientist Susan Arndt , it should be reconsidered whether this term should continue to be a “terminological monument” as a name for streets or pharmacies, for example. In her opinion, terms such as “Neger”, “Mohr”, but also “ Mischling ” should be broken.

Meaning in other languages

Statue of Santiago Matamoros (Saragossa in the house of Miguel Donlope)

Danish and Swedish morian , and the Finnish murjaani derived from them , and Polish murzyn have a similar range of meanings as Mohr .

In French, both le more and le maure (also Lemaure ) are usually understood as "the Maure". In the current dictionaries, the spelling with o is therefore only used as an orthographic variant.

The Sardinians call the four "Moors" on their coat of arms and on their flag Sos Bator Moros , whereby Moru means "brown" or "dark-skinned".

The Corsicans speak accordingly from U Moru . In German, both are more likely to translate as “der Maure” than “der Mohr”.

In Italian, il moro initially means the moor in the sense of "the dark one" (see Ludovico Sforza ) or "black-brown", but not "the black one" ( il nero ). It is a term more related to the dark-skinned Moors than to black Africans.

In Spanish, el moro is also not the Moor, but historically a name for the Arab-Muslim Moors who had conquered Spain in the meantime. Today it is mainly used as a negative to discriminatory word for Muslim Arabs in general. In this context, the epithet " Matamoros " for St. James the Elder is to be seen, who in the translation and iconography is mostly rendered as "Moorskiller" or "Moorslächter", only rarely as "Mohrentöter" or "Mohrenschlächter" .

In English, too, the medieval Muslim inhabitants of al-Andalus , the Iberian Peninsula, and the Maghreb , whose culture is called moorish , used to be called “ the Moors ” . The black African Moor, on the other hand, is analogous to Middle High German the blackamoor in English . The Muslim religious community in Sri Lanka is also referred to as " moors " in English , even if there is no direct reference to Africa. The religious affiliation to Islam led to the adoption of this name for other Muslim groups.

Mohr as a stereotype

So-called "Nick Negro" : Part of the Christmas nativity decoration 2012 in the parish church of St. Joseph (Hannover) : Taking a coin into the stylized "Moors," he shakes his head.

Central European representations of "Moors" are seldom based on actual encounters, far more on travelogues and traditional representations. Historical images of Moors therefore often follow a stereotype : dark to black skin, plump lips, frizzy hair, often with large earrings or other attributes of "wild peoples".

Numerous coined words, historical names, coats of arms and images have preserved this image of the "Moor" to this day.

Encounters between Europeans north of the Alps and Africans were rare until the 18th century. Although dark-skinned Africans lived and fought as soldiers in the Roman army in Central Europe in Roman times , this ended with the time of the Great Migration . In the Middle Ages and the early modern period , pictorial representations of black people north of the Alps were therefore a notable exception, while in the Italian states such as the Republic of Venice, contact with Africa was never lost.

What applies to the Christian component with regard to the "hell black man" and the "black man" has changed in the Middle Ages due to the changed representation and veneration of saints (especially Black Madonnas, a Moor as one of the Three Kings , St. Mauritius ) and relativized by the positive use of moors in episcopal coats of arms (including Freising , Würzburg ).

It was only after the colonial era that these “Moors” from Africa and America came to European courts as slaves. At princely courts, but also among rich citizens, it was a matter of prestige up until the 18th century to have “court moors”, usually as valets (“ chamber moors ”) or soldiers dressed as guards who were more decorative. Many others also came to the military, mostly as minstrels.

Well-known people called Moors are, for example, Anton Wilhelm Amo († after 1753), the "high princely Mohr" Angelo Soliman († 1796) and Ignatius Fortuna († 1789). Soliman's skin was prepared after his death and exhibited in the imperial natural history cabinet in Vienna. In 1729, Amo wrote a font called De iure Maurorum in Europa in Latin ( German about the legal status of Moors in Europe ), which has not been preserved.

A relatively early example of the anthropological classification of Moors between European humans and apes is the book On the Physical Difference of Moors from Europeans by Samuel Thomas von Soemmerring , published in 1784. His views were based on the Aristotelian concept of the Scala Naturae , the " Ladder of beings ”, and assigned all life a fixed place in a hierarchy of“ lower ”and“ higher ”beings. Officers from Hessen-Darmstadt had given the doctor bodies of slaves who had died in Germany for dissection. These "Moors" were brought from America and died here from the cold, from infectious diseases or from suicide . Soemmering compared his findings from these sections with findings that he had obtained from the corpses of Europeans and exotic animals. He saw the “practical prejudice” confirmed “that in general, on average, the African Moors are somewhat closer to the ape sex than the Europeans. But they still remain human. "

After all, some people called Moors served as exhibition attractions at fairs, traveling menageries , and later in special people shows (for example in the zoological garden of the Hagenbeck company ). The heyday of the Völkerschauen in Europe was between 1870 and 1940.

In this context, May Ayim , one of the pioneers of the Afro-German movement and critical whiteness research in Germany, clearly criticized the Christian-Occidental color symbolism in the second half of the 20th century, which “the color black has always been associated with the reprehensible and undesirable Connection ":

“Accordingly, there are examples in the early literature where white people become 'Moors' through unlawful behavior. In the church vocabulary of the Middle Ages, ' Aethiops ' and ' Aegyptius ' were used as names for the devil at times. Religiously determined prejudices and discrimination thus formed part of the foundation on which a conglomerate of racist convictions could easily develop in the colonial era , which turned the black pagans (Moors) into black subhumans ( negroes ). "

The "Mohrenland": the geographical origin of the "Mohren"

Ajai Samuel Crowther (around 1809-1891), Evangelical Bishop of Nigeria, October 1888

Today the word "Mohr" is associated with people from Sub-Saharan Africa , the historical usage, however, is aimed at people from North African regions, especially from Northeast Africa ( Ethiopia , Eritrea , Abyssinia , Aksum , Nubia ) and Northwest Africa ( Mauritania , Western Sahara , Mali , Morocco , Algeria , see Bidhan ).

In German, the word "Mohr" seems to have historically a stronger affinity to the ancient Greek word aithiops (for "burned face", see Aithiopia ). The identification of Moors with Moors comes from the underlying sound similarity and Spanish influence, where moro is the word for the Arab-Islamic Moors for historical reasons.

When in the Middle Ages, for example in connection with the “Freising Mohr”, Latinized caput aethiop (i) s or caput ethiopicum is mentioned, this does not have anything to do with Ethiopia in the context of that time, but is already generally translated as "Mohrenkopf".

In this sense, Martin Luther also translates the land of Kush , which joined Egypt to the south ( Ez 29,10  LUT ) and was named Ethiopia in the Greco-Roman language area (also in the Septuagint ), consistently with "Mohrenland". Here Jer 13,23  LUT is the decisive factor, where it says: “Can the Kushite change his skin or the panther his spots?” Here, too, Luther says “the Mohr”. The prophet Isaiah, on the other hand, did not allude to the color of the skin in his description of the Cushites ( Isa 18  EU ), but instead to their height ("tall") and hairlessness ("bare"). Looking at the Ethiopian treasurer, Luther also seems to identify the terms “ Orient ” and “Mohrenland” with one another.

In 1670 Jerónimo Lobo wrote about the "true nature of the Mohrenland, especially the Abbysin Kayserthum". On the other hand, Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi da Montecuccolo understood 1694 in his historical description of the "Occidental Moorland" including the three kingdoms of Congo , Matamba and Angola, among other areas .

In 1728 the report by Bartolomeo de Rogatis appeared for the first time in German about the loss of the Kingdom of Spain and its re-conquest from the hands of the Moors , which in turn meant the Moors.

In 1894 the book Dr. Ajai Samuel Crowther , the first evangelical negro bishop, or Mohrenland is released reaching out his hands to God . So here is Nigeria in the Mohrenland.

Even at the beginning of the 1930s, titles such as Als Mohrenland was still Christian ... (G. von Massenbach, 1933), Der Erstling aus Mohrenland (Biographisches von Samuel Ali Hussein, 1932) or Old and New from Mohrenland (Church and Mission History from Christoph Schomerus, 1934), whereby both “Mohr” and “Neger” are interchangeable and the whole of Africa is increasingly becoming a “Mohr” or “Negerland”.

Moors in European cultural history

Sibylle Agrippina

The Sibylla Agrippina is the only one of the Sibyls to be depicted as a Moor in a purple robe, for example by the Flemish painter Jan van den Hoecke (1611–1651).

Biblical characters

Since Luther generally identified the Cushites with Moors in his translation of the Bible, today some biblical figures are also considered Moors or Moors. In contrast, the Standardized Translation speaks of Cushites and the King James Bible of Ethiopians.

The wife of Moses

Moses married the Cushite Zippora . The corresponding passage in Numbers 12.1  LUT says in Luther: "And Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses because of his wife, the Moor whom he had taken because he had taken a Mohr to wife".

Serah the Moor and Tirhaka the King of the Moors

Pharaoh Taharqa

During the Cushitic campaign against King Asa ( 2 Chr 14,7-8  LUT ), Luther speaks of the "victory of Asa over the Moors" and of their leader " Serah the Mohr". According to Pierer's Universal Lexicon of 1857, it is about an Egyptian king who was called Osorthon by the classical writers and was named around 950 BC. Was defeated by Asa.

In 2 Kings 19,9  LUT and in Isa 37,9  LUT , Luther calls Thirhaka "King of the Moors" or "King of the Moors". It is very likely to be Taharqa , king of Kush or Nubia , who lived from around 690 to 664 BC. Ruled.

Ethiopian chamberlain

In the Acts of the Apostles ( Acts 8.26  LUT ) there is talk of an Ethiopian eunuch of Queen Kandake - with Luther from the "Mohrenland" - who is baptized by the deacon Philip . This Moor is considered to be the founder, Philip as the father of the Ethiopian Church .

Even the Cushite, with Luther "Mohr", Ebedmelech was employed as a court chamberlain in the time of the prophet Jeremiah ( Jer 38–39  LUT ). He saves the prophet from the cistern.

The depiction of the “baptism of the chamberlain” became a popular subject in the 16th and 17th centuries, especially in the Netherlands, among others with Abraham Bloemaert (1566–1651) and Rembrandt (1606–1669).

The Mohrin in Solomon's Song of Songs and the Queen of Sheba

Queen of Sheba as a Mohrin in Konrad Kyeser's Bellifortis , 1405

The situation is different with regard to the Song of Songs , which is traditionally attributed to King Solomon . There he describes his beloved as dark-skinned ( Hld 1,5–6  EU ): “I am black, but very lovely, you daughters of Jerusalem, like the huts of Kedar, like the carpets of Solomon. Don't look at me for being so black; because the sun has so burned me. ”From this it was concluded that the woman was a Mohrin. She is traditionally identified with the Queen of Sheba . Therefore, medieval artists painted the Queen of Sheba as a Moor. An early and quite impressive representation can be found in the Romanesque Verdun Altar in Klosterneuburg from 1181.

Also at the end of the 12th century Benedetto Antelami (around 1150 - around 1230) created a statue of the queen in Parma . He designed her as a medieval princess, dark-skinned and with blond hair.

Black Madonna

Presumably in the allegorical transfer of the Song of Songs to Jesus (God) and Mary (Church) and based on the depictions of the Queen of Sheba, there were depictions of Mary , the mother of Jesus of Nazareth , as a Moor, see Black Madonna . The oldest portraits of Black Madonnas , which according to legend, like many icons, are ascribed to the Evangelist Luke , date from the 6th to 9th centuries, the corresponding statues from the 12th and 13th centuries. The tradition of Oropa in Piedmont tells of the fact that the holy bishop Eusebius von Vercelli († 381) brought a Black Madonna with him in the 4th century after his participation in the Council of Nicaea and brought it to the monastery cell he founded. The statue venerated there today is more from the 13th century.

Commons : Black Madonna  - collection of images, videos and audio files

The Moor of the Magi

Image of the Three Kings on the Wildung Altarpiece by Conrad von Soest , 1403

One of the Magi has been portrayed as a black African since the 12th century, and increasingly since the beginning of the 14th century. The background is the older view of Augustine and Hrabanus Maurus that the three kings are descendants of the three sons of Noah and represent the three continents known at the time.

Depending on the region and tradition, Caspar - the “youngest” king to bring myrrh -, Melchior or Balthasar is depicted as a Moor. At first it was mostly Balthasar, who was also perceived as King of Saba, but later in popular tradition it was most often Caspar who received this designation. Folk tradition can refer to Pseudo-Beda's Codex Vaticanus (traditionally dated to the 10th century), where Kaspar is referred to as a Moor. Melchior is described by Karl Heinrich Waggerl in the story Why the black king Melchior was so happy . This view was also represented in the Ingeram Codex of 1459 in the Middle Ages .

The king's dark skin color arises from a misinterpretation of a traditional text. Nevertheless, the representation of a king as a Moor has survived in the fine arts to this day. Especially in Gothic and Renaissance painting north of the Alps, the dark-skinned gradually developed into the black king, towards the end of the 15th century increasingly with contrasting, light-colored clothing:

While King Melchior has a Moorish coat of arms in the Ingeram Codex, in a Tyrolean coat of arms book from the last quarter of the 15th century it is King Balthasar, himself depicted as light-skinned.

  • Stefan Lochner , Cologne Cathedral, standard with Moorish coat of arms, around 1440

  • Ingeram Codex : King Melchor carries a Moorish coat of arms, 1459

In the religious customs around the Epiphany , especially in star singing , a king is traditionally blackened. With reference to this custom, several West German postage stamps show a Moorish king .

  • 1971 postage stamp

  • 1972 postage stamp

  • Postage stamp 1981 (Berlin)

  • 2007 postage stamp

Holy Mauritius

Representation of St. Mauritius as Mohr in St. Mauritius Cathedral , Magdeburg (around 1250)

St. Mauritius († around 290) was - similar to Saint Maurus - seen in a long tradition as a Moor because of its name. Not infrequently, in everyday German usage, the first name Mauritius or Maurus became the polished short form Mohr .

Mauritius was initially the patron saint of Burgundy . On September 21, 937, on the eve of the feast of St. Mauritius, previously winning in the king founded Otto I in Magdeburg in the presence of two archbishops, eight bishops and numerous secular nobleman the Mauritius monastery . After his marriage to Adelheid , the daughter of King Rudolf II of Burgundy , in 951 Otto I received from her brother King Konrad III. from Burgundy for Christmas 960 the relics of St. Mauritius from the Saint-Maurice Abbey in the Swiss canton of Valais, which he brought to the Mauritius monastery. In 955 he had the first Magdeburg Cathedral built, dedicated to St. Catherine of Alexandria and St. Mauritius is consecrated. The historical background is probably the victory against the Hungarians on the Lechfeld in 955, which Otto on the help of St. Mauritius returned. In 962 Otto I had himself in the course of his coronation as emperor by Pope John XII. also confirm the feast of the holy.

At the time of the Ottonians and Staufer emperors , the worship of Mauritius spread throughout Germany, he became an imperial saint and the warrior saint preferred by the high nobility. Among other things, according to legend, the Holy Lance he gave was carried forward as an imperial jewel in important campaigns of the empire. From the 12th century on, the anointing of the emperor took place in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome at the Mauritius altar originally donated by Otto I. The Mauritius cult in Magdeburg flourished again under Archbishop Wichmann von Seeburg , from 1209 in the cathedral, which was rebuilt after the fire was destroyed (1207) under Archbishop Albrecht I von Käfernburg . It contains a large number of depictions of Mauritius, including one of the oldest figurative statues showing him as a Moor (around 1250).

Initially sporadically - for example in the German Imperial Chronicle from the 12th century - from the late 14th century onwards, Mauritius was increasingly portrayed as a Moor and since then has also been considered the patron saint of all craftsmen who deal with colors. New churches were consecrated to him with increasing frequency. More and more often he became a heraldic figure on the shields of aristocratic families and cities - among them the noble families Wolffskeel and Grumbach as well as the city of Coburg .

The saint can also be found on the oldest seal of the city of Ingolstadt from 1291, but probably not yet as a Moor. The parish church of St. Moritz zu Ingolstadt has probably had this patronage since the 13th century, but it also does not contain any depictions of the Moors. A Ritter-Mohr Mauritius painted by Hans Mielich (1516–1573) can be found in the high altar of the Ingolstadt Minster .

The combination of the Mohrenkönig and St. Mauritius as Mohr appears on Hans Baldung's three- king altar from 1507, which is now in the Berlin State Museums. It was painted for the Halle Cathedral . For the same church painted Matthias Grünewald commissioned (1475-1528) of the Archbishop of Magdeburg , the Erasmus Mauritius panel , on the Moor as an imperial patron and patron of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg with a ceremonial armor Emperor Charles V appears.

Moses the Ethiopian

Moses the Ethiopian or Black was a hermit monk in Egypt, messenger of faith among the Saracens and later a bishop. He was born in Ethiopia around 320 and died there around 390/395. As an Ethiopian, he had dark skin and was therefore traditionally depicted as "Mohr". He is the first black African saint known by name and is considered the patron saint of African Americans .

Belakane

Margret Hofheinz-Döring: Belakane and Feirefiß, 1967

The beautiful Saracen queen Belakane in Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival is a Mohrin. Her and Gahmurets son Feirefiz is presented as an Elster hybrid ("black and white piebald"). The son of Feirefiz and Repanse de Schoye will be the priest-king John . The speculations about a historical background of these figures are varied and controversial.

Ludwig the Mohr and Alessandro de 'Medici

The Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza (1452–1508) has the surname il Moro ("the dark one") among the Italians , as does the Florence Duke Alessandro de 'Medici (1510–1537), where with him il Moro usually means "the Moor “Is reproduced.

The Moor of Venice

The Mohr of Venice , which was later introduced by Shakespeare's play Othello (around 1604, printed 1622), Karl Meisl's play Othellerl, the Mohr von Wien or Die Heilte Jeaersucht (1806) and by the operas of Gioacchino Rossini (1816) and Giuseppe Verdi ( Otello , 1887) was originally only a Mohr by family name, not skin color. Shakespeare had used the novella Un Capitano Moro from Degli Hecatommithi (1565) by Giambattista Giraldi († 1573) as a basis. The moral of this novella aimed at the supposed folly of European women when they marry spirited men of other peoples. The historical model for this novella was Cristofalo Moro , who moved to Cyprus in 1505 as governor of the Republic of St. Mark in order to defend the island against the Ottomans. While Othello murders his wife out of jealousy at Giraldi's and this murder is later avenged by their relatives, Shakespeare's case shows he kills himself after seeing his mistake. The historical Capitano Moro, on the other hand, returned to Venice after three years, with his wife on the return journey died, which plunged him into deep grief. While Giraldi clearly spoke of the “negrezza” of the Moor, it is controversial in Shakespeare research whether the term “moor” is more aimed at origin, culture or skin color or a mixture of these.

In 1692 the Capuchin missionary Dionigi de Carli published a pamphlet independent of this complex, entitled Der Mohr brought to Venice .

Benedict the Mohr

Benedict the Mohr (around 1526 in San Fratello near Messina in Italy; † April 4, 1589 in Palermo in Sicily) was born as a child of Ethiopian slaves in Sicily, later worked as a monk in Sicily and a superior in Palermo . He was canonized by the Catholic Church in 1807.

The Moor of Peter the Great

The Moor of Peter the Great named Abraham Petrowitsch Hannibal († 1781) was an Abyssinian prince's son and ancestor of Alexander Sergejewitsch Pushkin , who later depicted his life in a novel. Hannibal came first as a slave child to the Ottoman sultan's court in Constantinople and then through the envoy Tolstoy as secretary to the tsar's court, where he was baptized in 1705 - with the tsar as godfather - and later loved by him like his own son. Growing up, he took up a military career, but fell from grace when he did not want to be married. In 1976, the Soviet film How Tsar Peter married his Mohren by Alexander Mitta was made about these Moors in the style of a fairy tale .

  • Abraham Petrowitsch Hannibal, around 1720

  • Nègre au turban by Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863), used as an illustration in the biography of Hugh Barnes

  • Portrait of his son, Iwan Abramowitsch Hannibal (1735–1801), Russian admiral

  • The picture of General Meller-Zakomelski often wrongly assigned to Abraham Petrowitsch Hannibal

Black king in chess

In medieval chess books the Black King is characterized as a Mohr, for example in the Konstanzer Schachzabelbuch from 1479 (today in the Austrian National Library in Vienna).

The Mohr of Riedlingen

Riedlinger Mohr

The Fasnet in Riedlingen an der Donau knows a Moor, the Riedlingers themselves are the associated “Mohrenwäscher”. The following story is given as a reason for this fact: In Riedlingen there was once a guest circus that included a black man, a “Mohr”. Since the residents of Riedlingen had never seen a black man before, they believed it was a white man who had not washed. They grabbed him, took him to the market fountain and tried to scrub the moor white, but this did not succeed.

Moors in heraldry

→ Main article: Mohr (heraldry)

The Moor as a coat of arms was introduced into heraldry very early on . The Mohr is represented as a " common figure " in many coats of arms and in the upper coat of arms . Examples are the coat of arms of Pope Benedict XVI. , from the Hochstift Freising or the coat of arms of the Pappenheimer .

Literature and art

Literature and theater

In addition to Othello, the Moor of Venice , there are numerous other motifs in literature and theater:

Hermann von Sachsenheim: The Mohrin

Hermann von Sachsenheim († 1458) composed the larger allegorizing narrative poem "Die Mohrin" around 1453, which he dedicated to Mechthild von der Pfalz . In 1452 she married the later Archduke Albrecht VI. married from Austria. He is the brother of Emperor Friedrich III. The poem was first printed in Strasbourg in 1512.

Friedrich Schiller: The Mohr of Tunis

The catchphrase "The Mohr has done his duty, the Mohr can go" reads in the original: "The Mohr has done his job, the Mohr can go." Friedrich Schiller put this sentence into the mouth of the rascal Muley Hassan , the Moor of Tunis ( The Fiesco Conspiracy to Genoa ) . Gerhard Stadelmaier has pointed out that Schiller's original in no way justifies the proverb that “debt” has a different meaning than “work”.

Heinrich Hoffmann: Moritat from the black boys

The "Mohr" in the children's book Struwwelpeter from 1845
Struwwelpeter (1848)

Also known is the morality “from the black boys” from the children's book Struwwelpeter by Heinrich Hoffmann (1845): “We went for a walk in front of the gate / a coal black moor…”, in which children make fun of a moor because of his skin color however, the "great Nikolas" dipped it into an inkwell . So as a punishment they are made "much blacker than the Moorish child". The story serves the anti-racist upbringing, but the black boy is portrayed as a stereotypical black African ( barefoot , thick-lipped, frizzy hair, naked except for shorts); however, the poet warns: “You children, listen to me, and leave the Moor pretty alone! What can this Moor do for the fact that he is not as white as you are? ”According to Susan Arndt , Hoffmann's anti-racism intention turns out to be the opposite on closer inspection, since the black boy is naked and nameless and, moreover, for being - supposedly ugly - black regretted, so the other children were dyed black as punishment for their lack of compassion.

Heinrich Heine: The Moor King

Heinrich Heine published the poem Der Mohrenkönig in his collection of poems Romanzero in 1844 . And in his winter fairy tale Caput 14, the three wise men are criticized, including Mr. Gaspar, the king of the Moors . Der Mohrenkönig von Heine is a continuation of the ballad Der Mohrenfürst by Ferdinand Freiligrath , set to music by Carl Loewe .

More Moors in world literature

Moors, designated as such, also play an important role in the following works:

In the youth book Mohr and the Ravens of London by Vilmos Korn and Ilse Korn , Karl Marx (according to his nickname) appears in a supporting role as "Mohr".

music

Moors in the music theater

In addition to Othello's operas and the Moor should Monostatos from the Magic Flute by Mozart and Antonio Salieri's musical comedy Il Moro and its German opera The Negroes not be forgotten. And the king of the Nubians Amonasro in Verdi's Aida is also a Moor. Even Richard Strauss and Hugo von Hofmannsthal left at the end of " Rosenkavalier " "a little Negro in Yellow" occur "a salver with chocolate-supporting".

Moresque dance, Morris dance, Moresken

The Morisks and the dance named after them are also derived from the Moors . Related to the morris dancers in the field of folk music in England are the so-called " morris dancers ". This morris dance is related to square dance.

Orlando di Lasso († 1594, Munich) wrote Neapolitan madrigals , which he calls Moresques and in which, in addition to characters from the Commedia dell'arte , "Moors" appear as jokes and exotic elements.

Painting and sculpture

In the field of fine arts, the following should be emphasized:

The servant role of many Moors in colonial times was also reflected in functional Mohr figures, for example in the so-called Rauchververhrer-Mohr .

  • Mohr with the emerald stage from Dinglinger & Permoser, Dresden

  • Paolo Veronese: Detail with Mohren-Page from The Banquet in the House of Levi , 1573, Accademia, Venice

  • Sculpture group Netzzugende Mohren by Pehr Henrik Lundgren , 1845, originally in Hagapark , now in Ulriksdal Castle near Stockholm, Sweden

  • Gotland, baroque choir stalls with moor on camel

  • Smokers in an exhibition of the Düren History Association

  • Mohr picture from Berchem

  • Mohr picture from Berchem

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Sarotti-Mohr, exhibited in the Imhoff-Stollwerck Museum

The Sarotti Mohr

Sarotti AG share from 1924 with images of the Sarotti Moor

The chocolate manufacturer, founded by Hugo Hoffmann in 1868 and known under the name Sarotti in 1881 through the takeover of the “Confiseur-Waaren-Handlung Felix & Sarotti” , has been advertising with the “chocolate-brown Sarotti-Mohren” as a company logo since the 1920s . After the end of the First World War, the advertising agency of the graphic artist Julius Gipkens designed the first Moorish sign on the occasion of the company's 50th anniversary, based on the first manufacturing facility in Mohrenstrasse : three Moors with a tray. The trademark was registered on August 27, 1918.

The Mohr von Gipkens received the shape used to this day in 1920 and became a registered trademark in 1922 . The advertising figures wore a turban and a tray and were originally intended to allude to the traditional function of Moors as servants of the high nobility . Possibly they are also supposed to refer to the cultivation of cocoa in Africa (most cocoa at the time, however, came from South America ). It is also conceivable that this should be associated with sensuality and increased enjoyment, as stereotyped as attributed to the inhabitants of southern countries. (Important in this context is colonialism , which stimulated fantasies of the “sensual south” in Europe; see exoticism ). Perhaps the use of the Mohren also goes back to the production site of the Neumann'schen Warenhandlung; it was located on Mohrenstrasse in Berlin for a while. Mohr has appeared on product packaging since 1918 (the company's 50th anniversary) , in print advertising and, from 1964, in television advertising and has since been marketed in numerous forms as a souvenir .

The factory, which was located in Berlin until after the Second World War , had a Sarotti Mohren produced as an advertising figure from gilded bronze in the Noack art foundry . It is located in the German Historical Museum in Berlin.

Since 2004, the Stollwerck company has officially designated the Sarotti Mohren as the Sarotti magician of the senses . The figure has been redesigned in color and is now juggling stars instead of carrying a tray or a red and blue flag.

Moors at coffee roasters

Meinl logo valid since 2004

There is a “Mohr” in the logo of the Viennese coffee roasting company Julius Meinl . The Meinl-Mohr drinks coffee, wears a high red fez and the uniform of a bellboy or servant. It was designed in 1924 by graphic designer Joseph Binder and modernized to a more abstract representation in 1965. Sensuality and a “cosmopolitan” and “exotic” atmosphere of Mediterranean hotels or colonial mansions should also be associated with it. For the USA, the Meinl Group has replaced the black face with gold. In Europe Meinl continued to present itself with the traditional “Mohren” with red fez. However, the company officially states that the Mohr resembles a “sympathetic baroque angel ” and therefore stands for “the European component” of the company. A new design (all in red) has been in use since 2004.

The Machwitz coffee roasting company in Hanover, founded in 1883, also uses a Mohren logo with three busts behind the company logo.

The Tucher-Mohr

The head of a Moor (it is probably a representation of St. Mauritius) is the trademark of the Tucher Bräu from Nuremberg. It was taken over from the coat of arms of the Tucher von Simmelsdorf patrician family in Nuremberg when the Dr. Lorenz Tucher Foundation acquired the formerly municipal wheat beer brewery, which had previously been known as the “Königliches Bräuhaus”.

"Lu" by Lucaffé

Lucaffé coffee pod

The northern Italian company Lucaffé, founded in 1996 by Gian Luca Venturelli, produces, among other things, coffee for fully automatic machines and coffee pods . Most of the products are adorned with a smiling black man named Lu. He stands on one leg and holds a coffee can in his hand. In addition, the company offers various marketing products also with the image of the man.

Microtoponyms (names of small objects or places)

The word Mohr can be found again and again as part of names for different places, locations and buildings, so it serves as part of building names and place names in the broader sense.

Black Moor mine

In the vicinity of the Bavarian town of Dürrenwaid in the Franconian Forest there is an abandoned and developed pit with the - actually pleonastic - name Schwarzer Mohr .

Pharmacies, inns, breweries, houses

"Moors" are also often found in the names and coats of arms of pharmacies , inns and breweries .

Mohr pharmacies were or are for example in:

Mohren pharmacy in Bayreuth (since 1610)
  • Germany: Amberg , Aschaffenburg , Bad Königshofen im Grabfeld , Bad Langensalza , Bad Salzungen , Baesweiler , Bautzen , Bayreuth, Bergheim, Berlin, Bielefeld, Bochum, Bonn, Bremen, Chemnitz-Bernsdorf, Celle, Coburg (since 1955 in Mohrenstrasse), Dortmund, Eberbach, Erfurt, Erlangen, Frankfurt am Main, Friedberg, Fürth, Gelsenkirchen, Görlitz, Halle (Saale) , Hamburg, Hanau, Hanover, Heidelberg, Heilbronn, Herne, Hofgeismar, Jüterbog, Karlstadt, Kassel, Kiel, Köthen (Anhalt ), Konstanz (pharmacy since 1788), Kulmbach (opened in 1563), Langenfeld, Leipzig-Wiederitzsch, Magdeburg, Mainz, Meerbusch, Meisenheim (built in the 16th century), Memmingen, Mühlhausen / Thuringia , Munich (since 1438), Nördlingen, Nordhausen / Thuringia, Nuremberg zu St. Lorenz (first documented mention: 1442), Nuremberg-Südstadt, Osnabrück, Regensburg (1517–2016), Schmidmühlen , Schwäbisch Gmünd, Schwäbisch Hall, Torgau (since 1579), Ulm (since 1568), Weiden, Weißenfels , Wolfsburg, Worms, Wuppertal and Zwickau
  • Grand Duchy of Luxembourg: Luxembourg City
  • Austria: Bad Radkersburg, Graz-Gries, Krems an der Donau and Vienna
  • Switzerland: Winterthur ZH
  • see. also the story The people from the Mohrenapotheke by Ernst Penzoldt
Company coat of arms of the August Huber Mohrenbrauerei in Dornbirn, Austria

Germany and Austria: There are or were Mohren breweries in Bayreuth, Coburg, Dornbirn, Leutkirch im Allgäu (brewery inn "Zum Mohren") , in Ravensburg, in Schwäbisch Gmünd ("Drei Mohrenbrauerei") and in Zwiefalten-Baach.

There are inns, restaurants, hotels etc. with a Moor in the title:

Guest house in Rottweil
Tavern sign Ravensburg
  • in Germany: The Volkshaus zum Mohren in Gotha , a historically significant meeting place, was demolished in 2007. There are also corresponding locations in: Aachen ( Haus zum Mohren ) , Ansbach, Augsburg ( Hotel Drei Mohren ), Aulendorf, Bad Sachsa, Bayreuth ( Brauereigasthof Mohren Bräu Bayreuth ), Bonn ( Haus im Mohren ), Eisenberg (Gasthaus Zum Mohren ), Erlangen ( Mohrenkopf ), Ettlingen ( Drei Mohren ), Flensburg, Gotha, Halle (Saale) (Gasthof Zum Mohr ), Heidelberg ( Großer Mohr and Kleiner Mohr ), Isselburg, Kandel ( Zu den Drei Mohren ), Kiel ( Zum Mohrenkopf ), Landsberg am Lech, Lauingen , Munich, Niederstotzingen, Oberpullendorf, Ottobeuren, Pegau, Poppenricht ( Zu den Drei Mohren ), Ravensburg, Riedlingen, Rottweil, Sindelfingen ( 3 Mohren ) and Stuttgart ( Drei Mohren ) Waldkirch ( Ristorante Pizzeria Mohreneck )
Hatlerdorf inn with Mohrenschild, Dornbirn
  • in Austria: Burgeis, Dornbirn, Leoben, Rankweil, Reutte, Salzburg
  • in Switzerland: Willisau
  • in South Tyrol: Prissian near Meran, Reschen

The following are known as Mohrenhaus :

In Erfurt there is a house to the Mohrenkopf . In Dinkelsbühl there is a Drei Mohren butcher's shop with a corresponding nose shield .

In Eisenberg (Thuringia) there is next to the mentioned inn and the Mohrenbrunnen (see below) also a bakery called Mohren Backstübl .

  • Mohr on the gable of the Volkshaus zum Mohren in Gotha

  • Portal of the Mohrenhaus in Radebeul

  • House zum Mohrenkopf in Erfurt, Johannesstrasse

Streets, squares, places and fountains

Place name sign of Mohrenhausen

Well known is Mohrenstrasse in Berlin, which was named around 1700 after Africans who were brought to Germany as slaves and who were probably housed there in Berlin. Many of them were trained as minstrels by the Prussian military from 1707. The Sarotti company had its headquarters at Mohrenstrasse 10 from 1881 to 1913 and, among other things, developed its advertising figure, the Sarotti-Mohren, from this circumstance. In 2004 the PDS unsuccessfully submitted an application to rename the street because the name was racist. Today the Federal Ministry of Justice , the Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and the Federal Government Commissioner for Human Rights Issues have their headquarters in Mohrenstrasse. There are Mohrenstrasse, Mohrenplatz and Mohrenbrunnen in many other German towns.
(For other streets of the same name, see Mohrenstrasse .)

In Italy there has been a Fontana del Moro in Rome on Piazza Navona since 1575 . It was redesigned in 1655 by Giannantonio Mari based on drawings by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and shows the fight between a Moor (actually a muscular Triton ) and a dolphin. There is also a Fontana dei quattro mori in the garden of Villa Lante (Bagnaia). There is also a memorial with four Moors in Livorno and Marino . Based on this motif, a well-known red wine from Castel de Paolis is called I quattro mori today .

In Switzerland there is a Mohrenbrunnen in Schaffhausen and Stein am Rhein .

Guilds

  • Mohrenbrunnen in Freising

  • Mohrenbrunnen in Schöntal Monastery

  • Fontana del Moro by Gian Lorenzo Bernini in Rome

  • “Fontana dei quattro mori” in the garden of Villa Lante

  • Schaffhausen Mohrenbrunnen figure

  • Mohrenbrunnen in Eisenberg

  • Mohrenbrunnen in Obergünzburg

"Black Man" - "Black Peter"

"Zwarte Piet"
"Old Maid" card

Also the figure of the black man , for example as a child fright in the children's game Who is Afraid of the Black Man? belongs in this context. It is unclear what exactly the "black man" refers to. The interpretation options offered range from a bio-sociological explanation about death, the devil, charcoal burner and chimney sweep to directly about the Moor. It is probable, however, that this figure does not initially represent dark-skinned or sooty people, but in general for the dark fear-inducing and evil (" Butzemann ", in English "Bogeyman", see also " Ogre " and " Puk "). The medieval concept of the devil as a black moor was only gradually replaced by the concept of the “red devil”.

There could also be a connection to the Dutch " Zwarte Piet " (Black Peter), which in Dutch customs is comparable to the Krampus or the Knecht Ruprecht, who comes from Spain from the Moors (Moors). Nikolaus von Myra accompanies him when he visits children. The "Zwarte Piet" had replaced a devil as servant in the 19th century. Legend has it that Sinterklaas once ransomed a slave boy named Peter, who then stayed with the bishop out of gratitude. In the Netherlands, the custom has repeatedly led to public debates on racism.

The well-known card game " Black Peter ", on the other hand, probably dates from the Biedermeier period around 1830. Whether it was the St. Nicholas companion "Zwarte Piet" or the contemporary and friend of Schinderhannes , the robber Johann Peter Petri (1752 - after 1812), who was also named after the Name "the old Black Peter" or "Black Peter" was known is still unclear.

Terms in flora, fauna, chemistry and alchemy

Plants and mushrooms

The words carrot or carrot and moor have no common etymological origin; Carrot goes back to West Germanic * "murhōn" "carrot", Mohr in Latin maurus . However, the wild carrot has a “ carrot ” colored black / black-red colored by anthocyanins in the middle of the umbels . The black millet ( Sorghum bicolor ) as well as the black pepper ( Xylopia aethiopica ) received the name because of their African origin. The wild mallow is sometimes also called black mallow , the Hungarian sage also called black sage . The deciduous moss species Andreaea rupestris was formerly also known as Mohrenmoos .

The Mohrenkopfmilchling ( Lactarius lignyotus ) got its name because of its color. The word formation of morels "little carrots" could be influenced by the dark heads of some species of vulgar Latin mauricula "little mohrin ".

  • Carrot umbels, in the middle the "carrot blossom"

  • Sugar millet, a form of "carrot millet"

  • "Mohrenkopfmilchling" with a black-brown hat

  • “Morel”, perhaps rooted in “Kleine Mohrin”

Animals

Taxonomic names with “aethiop (i) s” or “aethiopiacis” (Greek for “growing in the Mohrenland” or “scorched by the sun”) can refer to a “moorish” appearance. In the genus Erebia there are a number of species that are known as Mohrenfalter because of their predominantly dark brown colored wings, such as the Graubindige Mohrenfalter ( Erebia aethiops ).

In German, the names Mohrenkaiman ( Melanosuchus niger ), Mohrenklaffschnabel ( Anastomus lamelligerus ), Mohrenkopfparrot ( Poicephalus senegalus ), Mohrenkopfschimmel and Mohrenköpfle are common. The old German Mohrenkopf is a breed of pigeons from the group of colored pigeons . Mohrenkopf is also a standardized name for a drawing pattern for domestic chickens . The Ethiopian vervet monkey ( Chlorocebus aethiops ) is sometimes called the carrot monkey. In English there is a Black Moor Goldfish . Also bear the Mohr on behalf inter alia of black lemur ( Eulemur macaco ), the moor macaque ( Macaca maura ), the bare-faced ibis ( Phimosus infuscatus ), the Black Harrier ( Circus maurus ) that Mohrenschwarzkehlchen ( Saxicola caprata ), the Mohr Golden Oriole ( Oriolus hosii ), the black lark ( Melanocorypha yeltoniensis ) which Mohr Ralle ( Amaurornis flavirostris ) and the Mohr Honigfresser ( Myzomela nigrita ).

  • "Mohrenfalter"

  • "Black Caiman"

  • "Black-headed Parrot"

  • "Mohrenkopf" as a drawing pattern of the domestic chicken

  • "Black Moor Goldfish"

  • "Mohrenköpfle"

Chemistry, alchemy

The doctor and founder of homeopathy Samuel Hahnemann lists in his "Apothekerlexikon" published from 1793 to 1798 some substances whose German names were combined with Mohr. They were already in alchemy and chemistry before Hahnemann , since he has been widespread especially in homeopathy:

  • Salvia aethiopis ("black sage"),
  • Mercury aethiops alcalisatus ( "overbased Mohr", mercury, rubbed with Krebsstein )
  • Aethiops antimonialis ("Spießglanzmohr", combination of raw spit gloss with mercury),
  • Aethiops martialis ("Eisenmohr", essentially iron oxide ),
  • Aethiops martis Lemeryi ("Lemery's Eisenmohr"),
  • Aethiops mineralis empyrus or apyrus or Aethiops mercurialis ("mineral black", "mineral moor" or "mercury moor", is created by rubbing together raw mercury with equal parts of melting sulfur, see also cinnabar ),
  • Aethiops narcoticus ("sleep-making moor" or "sleep moor"),
  • Mercurius aethiops saccharatus ("Zuckermohr", mercury, rubbed with sugar)
  • Aethiops vegetabilis ("plant black ", bladder wrack , burnt black in concealed dishes and made into powder)

Aethiops caput ("Mohrenkopf") is what Hahnemann calls the hat cooler used in the distillation .

Others

Mohrenkopf

Sweets: Mohrenkopf, Mohr in a shirt and Eismohr

Mohrenkopf is the name of a small round biscuit made from light sponge cake , which is classically filled with vanilla cream and coated with apricot jam and chocolate icing. It is often offered in a crinkled paper napkin. The name is derived from the dark color of chocolate and the common association with "Moors" at the time. During the carnival season, faces are also decorated with moors' heads and covered with sugar or nougat icing of a different color - then, strictly speaking , they are no longer “moors” heads.
Occasionally the term “Mohrenkopf” was also used for the chocolate kisses known as “Negerkuss” , which consist of a soft meringue (French “baiser” = kiss) on a waffle .
The Austrian chocolate pastry Mohr im Shirt is also derived from the name Mohr.
Furthermore, soft ice cream with a chocolate coating is often called " ice cream ear". The dessert Mohr in a shirt is also referred to as "ice cream ear in a shirt" in combination with vanilla ice cream.

Mohrle and Mohrenköpfle

In the southern German-speaking area, black cats and rabbits are often called "Mohrle": "Our cat is called Mohrle, has a black ear, has a black fur ..." The Swabian-Hall pig is also known there as " Mohrenköpfle ". A type of beer from Haller Löwenbräu is also called Mohrenköpfle, based on these animals .

Alcoholic beverages

A mixed beer drink made from Cola and Hefeweizen is sometimes referred to as Mohr or Neger in southern Germany, Tyrol, Upper Austria and parts of Switzerland . One of Eisenberg derived herbal liqueur named Eisenberger Mohr drops .

Money denominations

Several word formations with the component Mohr are used as pre- and additional forms of the term Negergeld . As Mohr money glass beads were called that were exported from the Bohemian Forest and the Fichtel Mountains to Africa. From the 17th century, Moorish coins were known as means of payment in Asia and Africa, also for cowrie money , which also had the mock English designation blackamoor's tooth , in German about blackmoor 's tooth .

Small coins that have circulated in the Rhineland since the late Middle Ages were also referred to as carrots or mauriculus .

See also

literature

history
  • Dione Flühler-Kreis: The representation of the Moor in the Middle Ages . Juris Printing and Publishing, Zurich 1980.
  • Gude Suckale-Redlefsen: Mauritius, the holy Mohr = The black Saint Maurice. Menil Foundation et al. a., Houston TX 1987, ISBN 0-939594-03-X .
  • Eva Verma: Hofmohren. In: "... wherever you come from." Bi-national couples through the millennia. Dipa, Frankfurt am Main 1993, ISBN 3-7638-0196-0 , pp. 73-80, literature.
  • TF Earle, KJP Lowe (Ed.): Black Africans in Renaissance Europe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge u. a. 2005, ISBN 0-521-81582-7 .
Mohr as a stereotype and in advertising
  • Peter Schütt : "The Mohr has done his duty ..." Is there racism in the Federal Republic? A polemic. Weltkreis-Verlag, Dortmund 1981, ISBN 3-88142-252-8 .
  • Eckhard Henscheid , Immanuel Kant : The Negro (Negerl). Renner, Munich 1982, ISBN 3-921499-58-5 .
  • Jan Nederveen Pieterse: White on Black. Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture. Yale University Press, New Haven CT et al. 1995, ISBN 0-300-06311-3 .
  • Malte Hinrichsen: Racist Trademarks. Slavery, Orient, Colonialism and Commodity Culture. Lit, Münster et al. 2012, ISBN 978-3-643-90285-6 .
  • Thomas Kleber: The Sarotti-Mohr. To the iconographic and literary environment of an advertising figure. Siegen 2001 (Siegen, Univ., Diss., 2002).
  • Peter Martin: Black devils, noble Moors. Africans in the history and consciousness of the Germans. New edition. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-930908-64-6 .
  • Susan Arndt , Antje Hornscheidt (Hrsg.): Africa and the German language. A critical reference work. Unrast-Verlag, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-89771-424-8 .
  • Rita Gudermann: The Sarotti-Mohr. The eventful story of an advertising figure. Links, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-86153-341-3 .
  • Ulrike Kramer: Negro doesn't mean (just) “black”. How the word field “negro” changed its meaning. Praesens-Verlag, Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-7069-0504-6 (At the same time: Vienna, Univ., Dipl.-Arbeit, 2006: Von Negerkisses and Mohrenköpf. Terms such as Negro and Mohr in the mirror of political correctness. A vocabulary analysis ).
  • Joachim Zeller: Colonial Imagery. The Mohr on advertising pictures on colonial history. Weltbild, license edition 2013, ISBN 978-3-8289-0918-2 .

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Etymological dictionary of German , developed under the direction of Wolfgang Pfeifer, 7th edition, Munich, dtv 2004.
  2. ↑ http://woerterbuchnetz.de/cgi-bin/WBNetz/wbgui_py?sigle=DWB&mode=Vernetzung&lemid=GM06586#XGM06586
  3. ↑ Susan Arndt and Antje Hornscheidt , 2004, p. 18ff. ( Language and society. Colonial terms and their impact in past and present ), p. 22 ff. ( Racist terms and social reappraisal , p. 168 ff., Keyword Mohr / Mohrin)
  4. ^ Etymological dictionary of German , developed under the direction of Wolfgang Pfeifer, 7th edition, Munich 2004 sv Mohr . Kluge, Etymological Dictionary of German, 25th edition, Berlin / Boston 2011, sv Mohr
  5. ↑ Alain Rey, Dictionnaire historique de la langue francaise, Volume 2, Paris 2012, sv mauresque
  6. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Volume 9, 2nd edition, London 1989, sv Moor
  7. ↑ Michael Neill (ed.), Othello: The Moor of Venice , The Oxford Shakespeare, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 255 , footnote 221
  8. ↑ Susan Arndt: Africa Fantasies, Words and Dictionaries: Traditional Locations of 'Race' Theories. In Ingo H. Warnke: German language and colonialism: Aspects of national communication 1884-1919. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-020037-9 , pp. 293-314; here: p. 300.
  9. ^ French Wiktionary
  10. ↑ Ditzionariu ( Memento of the original from January 28, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ditzionariu.org
  11. ^ Italian Wiktionary
  12. ↑ Spanish Wiktionary
  13. ↑ English Wiktionary
  14. ↑ English Wiktionary
  15. ^ Norbert Mayer: Vienna Museum: Courtier from Africa, stuffed, burned. In: Die Presse , September 28, 2011.
  16. ↑ Lexikon der Biologie, Volume 9, Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg 2002, ISBN 3-8274-0334-0 , p. 176 (article: Human races)
  17. ↑ Heinz Schott: The sympathetic doctor: Texts on medicine in the 18th century , 1998, pp. 54–56.
  18. ↑ May Ayim (1997): The Afro-German minority. In: Susan Arndt (ed.): AfrikaBilder , 2001.
  19. ^ Wolfgang Menzel: Christliche Symbolik, 1854, p. 371; Walter Hildebrand: Kartause Gaming, 1985, p. 75
  20. ^ Jan van den Hoecke, Sibylle Agrippina
  21. ↑ Serah . In: Heinrich August Pierer , Julius Löbe (Hrsg.): Universal Lexicon of the Present and the Past . 4th edition. tape 15 . Altenburg 1862, p. 861-862 ( zeno.org ).
  22. ↑ Picture of the Kushite King Taharqa ( Memento of the original from March 8, 2005 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.reynier.com
  23. ↑ Ecumenical Lexicon of Saints: Philip the Evangelist , accessed on August 6, 2020.
  24. ↑ “Baptism of the Chamberlain” by Rembrandt, 1626
  25. ↑ Karl Hobular, On the representation of the Queen of Sheba on the Verdun Altar. Skin color and ideal of beauty in the old world, in: JbKlosterneuburg, NF 16, 1997, pp. 67-69, see picture of the Queen of Sheba in the Verdun Altar ( memento of the original from September 29, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet tested. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.wecarelife.at
  26. ^ Statue of the Queen of Sheba by Benedetto Antelami in Parma
  27. ↑ Image of the Madonna of Oropa
  28. ↑ Image of the Three Kings, beginning of the 14th century ( Memento of the original from July 14, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / elib.tu-darmstadt.de
  29. ↑ Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Vol. IX., 1982, pp. 166f.
  30. ↑ U. Monneret de Villard: Le leggende orientali sui magi evangelici ; 1952; P. 217
  31. ^ Image of the Balthasar coat of arms in the Tyrolean coat of arms book
  32. ↑ Friedrich Ohly, Sage and Legende in der Kaiserchronik , 1968, p. 140
  33. ↑ A. Brackmann: The political significance of Mauritius worship in the early Middle Ages , in ders .: Collected essays, (2) 1967, pp. 211–241
  34. ^ Image of the oldest seal of the city of Ingolstadt, 1291
  35. ↑ Mauritius picture by Hans Mielich in the Ingolstadt Minster
  36. ↑ Mauritius picture by Hans Baldung
  37. ↑ History and description ( House of Bavarian History )
  38. ↑ Ekkart Sauser:  MOSES the Ethiopians. In: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). Volume 15, Bautz, Herzberg 1999, ISBN 3-88309-077-8 , Sp. 1037.  ( Article / beginning of article in Internet archive )
  39. ↑ Othello (The Moor of Venice) on william-shakespeare.de (private website), cf. on this, Rawdon Lubbock Brown, Ragguagli sulla vita e sulle opere di Marin Sanuto , 1837, p. 235 with reference to the diaries of the Venetian historian Marino Sanudo († 1536)
  40. ↑ Barbara Gridnitz: Schwarzes Mädchen, weisser Fremder , 2002, p. 136ff: Shakespears Othello with reference to Michael McNeill, "Mulattos", "Blacks", and "Indian Moors": Othello and Early Moments of Constructions of Human Difference , in: Shakespeare Quarterly, 49, 1998, pp. 361–375, see also: William Shakespeare, Othello , 2001 = reprint of the edition (11) 1886, Appendix: Othellos Color, pp. 389–396
  41. ↑ Thomas Foster Earle, KJP Lowe (Ed.), Black Africans in Renaissance Europe , 2005 (contribution by Nelson H. Minnich), p. 298.
  42. ↑ Picture by Abraham Petrowitsch Hannibal  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / seell.rutgers.edu  
  43. ↑ Hugh Barnes, The Tsar's Moore - A Search for Clues , 2007
  44. ↑ Black King in the Schachzabel Book of 1479
  45. ↑ Gert Oswald: Lexicon of Heraldry . S. 274 .
  46. ^ Gerhard Stadelmaier: Schiller creates. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . April 3, 2012, accessed January 4, 2019 .
  47. ↑ Picture by Erasmus Grassers Mohr ( Memento of the original from October 11, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.arsmundi.de
  48. ^ Image of the Mohrin Katherina by Albrecht Dürer
  49. ↑ Illustration and details of the Bronze Mohren at www.deutsche digitiale bibliothek; accessed on December 25, 2019.
  50. ↑ Julius Meinl - About us. , accessed on August 6, 2020.
  51. ↑ a b Advertise & Sell: Racist Advertising: Beer Heil! - W&V. In: wuv.de. January 3, 2020, accessed July 3, 2020 .
  52. ↑ Home: Machwitz Kaffe - coffee roasting with tradition since 1883 in Hanover - espresso, coffee, plantation coffee. In: machwitz-kaffee.de. Retrieved July 3, 2020 .
  53. ↑ Website of the Tucher'schen Kulturstiftung ( Memento of the original from August 8, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.tucher-kulturstiftung.de
  54. ↑ the company Lucaffe site
  55. ↑ website of Lucaffé Venturelli Gian Luca Srl
  56. ↑ www.mohrenapo.de
  57. ↑ FAZ.net January 29, 2018 / Jürgen Kaube : The name is the punch line ( comment )
  58. ↑ Tal 13 www.mohren-apo.de  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.mohren-apo.de  
  59. ↑ wellvia.de
  60. ↑ Gasthaus zum Mohren , City of Pegau , accessed on December 25, 2019.
  61. ^ Picture of the Mohrenbrunnen in Schaffhausen
  62. ↑ Thomas Kirchner: "Sinterklaas is the most Dutch thing there is" In: Süddeutsche Zeitung , October 25, 2013.
  63. ↑ Hans Watzlik: The Leturn Hut. Berlin 1932, quoted from the Augsburg 1963 edition, p. 23. Also in: Josef Blau: The glass makers in the Bohemian and Bavarian Forests in folklore and cultural history. Kallmünz / Regensburg 1954, p. 11 (= contributions to folk research . Published by the Bavarian State Office for Folklore in Munich, Volume 8). - Herbert Achternbusch: The hour of death. Frankfurt am Main 1975, ISBN 3-518-02004-8 , p. 35
  64. ↑ Johann Albrecht von Mandelslo: Oriental travel description. Schleswig 1668, p. 123, online . - Wilhelm Ludwig Volz: History of the shell money. In: Journal for the entire political science. Volume 10, 1854, p. 112, online
  65. ^ Oxford English Dictionary , Oxford 1989 sv Blackamoor, Definition 1c
  66. ^ Friedrich von Schrötter: Dictionary of coinage. 2nd edition, Berlin 1970, p. 273

Web links

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