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Spielweise

Joachim Löw zufolge ist Kroos der „vielleicht beste Verbindungsspieler, den es je gab [...] Er erkennt Räume wie kaum ein anderer und ist dank seiner Technik in der Lage, seine Ideen umzusetzen [...] Er überblickt wie ein Adler aus der Vogelperspektive das Spielfeld und weiß, was überall gerade passiert.“ Kroos könne laut Löw „wie kaum ein anderer Situationen erfassen, Spiele analysieren. Er ist bei alldem schnell im Kopf, was ausgleicht, dass er beim Tempolauf vielleicht nicht immer der Schnellste war.“ In all den gemeinsamen Jahren bei der Nationalelf habe er „nie ein Zeichen der Nervosität erkennen lassen. Er ruht stets in sich und ist total klar, auch unter größtem Druck." Dieses „große Selbstverständnis in seinem Spiel" habe Kroos bereits als sehr junger Spieler bei seinem DFB-Debüt 2010 gezeigt. "Technisch war er in der Lage, alle fußballerischen Schwierigkeiten zu lösen – auf simple Art und Weise. Und er besaß eine unglaubliche Orientierungsfähigkeit: Wo ist der Gegner, wo ist der Ball, wo sind die Mitspieler? Das brachte er alles mit, obwohl er zu diesem Zeitpunkt noch relativ jung und unerfahren war." „Die Mitspieler entwickelten totales Vertrauen in ihn, weil sie wussten, dass sie ihn in jeder Situation anspielen konnten und er immer in der Lage war, Lösungen zu finden.“

Kroos gilt als einer der besten und genauesten Flanken- und Passgeber aller Zeiten. Carlo Ancelotti erklärte im Jahr 2024 zu Tonis Passicherheit: „seine Passquote ist dieselbe wie vor zehn Jahren. Er war immer Top-Klasse.“

Christoph Kramer sagte im Jahr 2024 über Kroos Spielweise: „Es gibt nicht so viele Spieler auf der Welt, die einen Rhythmus eines Spiels bestimmen können. Er bestimmt den Rhythmus. Das ist ganz schwer. Er macht das in einer herausragenden Art und Weise." Carlo Ancelotti bestätigte dies indirekt, indem er angab, das Kroos „den Rhytmus kontrollieren“ könne.

Sechser, achter

Metronom für ein Mittelfeld

Rudi Völler verglich Kroos im Jahr 2024 wegen dessen vielen Ballkontakte mit einem Regisseur. Ilkay Gündogan sagte, er glaube, dass es im europäischen Fußball nicht viele Aufbauspieler gibt, die die Qualitäten von Toni haben.

Liste (Auswahl)

Year	Film	Description
2008	21	The film about card counting features actors Jim Sturgess, Kate Bosworth, Jacob Pitts and Kevin Spacey in the lead roles. The film is based on the true story where a group of Asian American students and their teacher applied card counting to win significantly in gambling. Jeff Ma, who was among the students, said that the controversy was "overblown" and that the important aspect is that a talented actor would portray him. Ma, who is Chinese American, told USA Today, "I would have been a lot more insulted if they had chosen someone who was Japanese or Korean, just to have an Asian playing me."
2007	30 Days of Night	In the vampire horror film, actor Josh Hartnett plays Sheriff Eben Oleson in an Alaskan town. The originating comic book mini-series featured the character as Sheriff Eben Olemaun, who is of Inuit descent.
2021	A Loud House Christmas	The white actor Matt Van Smith plays Bobby Santiago, who is of Mexican descent. The role was later recast in The Really Loud House.Vorlage:Citation needed
1961	A Majority of One	In this romantic comedy film, the English actor Alec Guinness plays the role of a Buddhist Japanese businessman Koichi Asano.
1984	The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension	In the science fiction film, actor Peter Weller plays the titular Dr. Buckaroo Banzai, who is half-Japanese.
2015	Aloha	The romantic comedy features an all-white principal cast and is set in the state of Hawaii, which is over 70% non-white. One of the actors, Emma Stone, portrayed the character Allison Ng; the character is stated as having a mother of Swedish descent and a father of half Native Hawaiian and half Chinese descent.
1946	Anna and the King of Siam	In the historical drama film, actor Rex Harrison plays the Siamese king Mongkut.
2018	Annihilation	In the science fiction film, actresses Natalie Portman and Jennifer Jason Leigh play characters who in the novel are, respectively, of Asian and half Native American descent. The characters' physical descriptions were only mentioned in passing in the second novel, following Annihilation. Both Natalie Portman and Jennifer Jason Leigh are Jewish.
1954	Apache	In the Western film, actor Burt Lancaster plays an Apache warrior.
2012	Argo	In the political thriller film based on a true story, actor Ben Affleck plays Tony Mendez, a CIA technical operations officer who is of Mexican descent. Tony Mendez said he did not think of himself as Hispanic.
2020	Artemis Fowl	In the science fantasy adventure film, actress Lara McDonnell plays Captain Holly Short, who in the book series was portrayed as having "nut-brown skin" of a "coffee complexion" (also described as "dark" and "coffee-coloured" in a scene set in a spa in the short story The Seventh Dwarf).
1987	Assa	In the Soviet crime film, white actor and musician Vorlage:Interlanguage link plays black guy Vitya, Bananan's friend.
2015	Avengers: Age of Ultron	In the superhero film, Elizabeth Olsen and Aaron Taylor-Johnson play, respectively, Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver, who in earlier comic incarnations were depicted as the children of white Americans, but were later depicted in most comics as being partly of Roma descent.
2005	Batman Begins	In the Batman film, actor Liam Neeson plays Ra's al Ghul, who in the comic books was portrayed as of Middle Eastern or East Asian descent.
2001	A Beautiful Mind	In the biographical film about John Nash, actress Jennifer Connelly plays Alicia Nash, who was born in El Salvador.
2017	The Beguiled	The drama film set in the Southern United States during the American Civil War was based on a 1966 novel that featured the mixed-race teenager Edwina and the black enslaved maid Mattie. Edwina was recast as a white teacher (played by Kirsten Dunst) and Mattie was cut out of the film. Director Sofia Coppola explained the removal, "I didn't want to brush over such an important topic in a light way. Young girls watch my films and this was not the depiction of an African-American character I would want to show them."
2013	The Big Wedding	In the comedy film, actor Ben Barnes sports a tan to play a Colombian character.
1998	Blade-Trilogie	In the superhero film series, actor Kris Kristofferson plays Blade's mentor Abraham Whistler, who is based on Jamal Afari, a character depicted as African-American in the comic books.
2002
2004
1961	Breakfast at Tiffany's	In the romantic comedy film, actor Mickey Rooney plays Mr. I. Y. Yunioshi, Holly Golightly's Asian neighbor.
2022	Bullet Train	In the action film based on the Japanese novel by Kōtarō Isaka, actors such as Brad Pitt and Joey King played the main characters while the setting was in Japan. The few Japanese characters in the movie had smaller roles, and many of extras were of non-Japanese descent, although Isaka would argue he did not write the characters with ethnicity in mind.
1993	Carlito's Way	In the crime film, Al Pacino plays a Puerto-Rican gangster.
1981	Charlie Chan and the Curse of the Dragon Queen	Actors Peter Ustinov (Charlie Chan), Richard Hatch (Lee Chan Junior) and Angie Dickinson (The Dragon Queen) play the roles of Asian Chinese characters.
1931	Charlie Chan Carries On	Actor Warner Oland plays Chinese detective Charlie Chan in the film, as well as 15 other films featuring the character.
1972	Chato's Land	In the western, Charles Bronson plays a half-Apache.
2018	Cocaine Godmother	In the biographical crime-drama television film, actress Catherine Zeta-Jones plays real-life Colombian drug lord Griselda Blanco.
1956	The Conqueror	In the epic film, actor John Wayne plays the title character Genghis Khan, a Mongol emperor.
2012	The Dark Knight Rises	In the Batman film, British actor Tom Hardy portrays Bane, who in the comics has origins in a fictional Latin American country located in the Caribbean. French actress Marion Cotillard portrays Talia al Ghul, who in the comics is of Middle Eastern or East Asian descent.
2017	Death Note	The English-language adaptation of the Japanese manga relocates the story to Seattle and renamed the protagonist Light Turner. USA Today reported that the film received backlash for whitewashing in casting white actors when Asian American actors could have been cast.
1986	The Delta Force	In the action film, Robert Forster plays Abdul Rafai, a Middle Eastern terrorist.
2014	Divergent	In the science fiction film, actor Theo James plays Four, who the novel's author Veronica Roth had confirmed to be biracial.
1962	Dr. No	In the spy film, the first James Bond film, white actor Joseph Wiseman plays the titular Julius No, who is half-Chinese, while British actress Zena Marshall plays Miss Taro, another character of Asian descent.
2016	Doctor Strange	In the superhero film, actress Tilda Swinton plays the Ancient One, who in the comics is a man from Kamar-Taj, a fictional kingdom in the Himalayas.
1944	Dragon Seed	In the war drama film, actor Katharine Hepburn plays the Chinese protagonist Jade.
2009	Dragonball Evolution	In the film based on the Japanese manga Dragon Ball, actor Justin Chatwin plays the lead character Goku.
2011	Drive	In the crime film, actor Carey Mulligan plays Irene, a Latina woman in the original novel.
1946	Duel in the Sun	In the western, Jennifer Jones plays Pearl Chavez, who is half Mexican.
2004	Earthsea	In the television miniseries adaptation of the "Earthsea" novels, most characters, including the main character Ged, are portrayed as white. In the original novels by Ursula K. Le Guin, Ged's skin is dark red-brown and the majority of people of the world are non-white; Le Guin has criticized this casting.
2014	Edge of Tomorrow	In the science fiction film, actor Tom Cruise plays William Cage, a version of the novel's Japanese protagonist Keiji Kiriya.
1960	Esther and the King	In the Biblical epic film, actors Joan Collins and Richard Egan play Biblical figures who are of Hebrew and Persian origin respectively.
1996	Executive Decision	In this action film, English actor David Suchet plays the role of a Middle East terrorist.
2014	Exodus: Gods and Kings	In the Biblical epic film, actors Christian Bale, Joel Edgerton, Sigourney Weaver and Aaron Paul play Biblical figures who are of African or Hebrew origin. Director Ridley Scott said about his casting, "I can't mount a film of this budget, where I have to rely on tax rebates in Spain, and say that my lead actor is Mohammad so-and-so from such-and-such. I'm just not going to get it financed. So the question doesn't even come up."
1965	The Face of Fu Manchu	In the thriller film, as well as four other films featuring the character, white actor Christopher Lee plays Asian Dr. Fu Manchu.
1947	Fiesta	In the musical drama film, actress Esther Williams plays the Mexican woman Maria Morales.
1962	Geronimo	In this film western, actor Chuck Connors plays the role of the famous Apache warrior Geronimo.
2017	Ghost in the Shell	The U.S. live action adaptation of the Japanese franchise featured several white actors, including Scarlett Johansson, Pilou Asbæk, and Michael Pitt, in the roles of Japanese animated characters. Scarlett Johansson who plays the main character is half Jewish on her mother's side. Pavan Shamdasani of Asia Times said, "The original is about as Asian as things get: Japanese cult manga, ground-breaking anime, Hong Kong-inspired locations, Eastern philosophy-based story. Most of that's been downright ignored with its big-screen adaptation, and Scarlett Johansson's casting as the dark-haired, obviously originally Asian lead sent netizens into a rage." Mamoru Oshii, director of the animated series, stated that the inspiration for the world of the film is not specifically Asian, nor is the ethnicity of the "shell" of the main character, specifically Japanese.
2016	The Girl with All the Gifts	In the science fiction film, Gemma Arterton plays Helen Justineau, a character depicted as black in the novel.
1998	Gods and Monsters	In the biographical drama about the last years of film director James Whale, white actress Lynn Redgrave plays Whale's housemaid Hanna. In the original book Father of Frankenstein by Christopher Bram, the character of Hanna is Maria, a maid of Mexican descent. Bill Condon, scriptwriter of the film, excused it saying that the European servants of that time were considered of "more value" and thus accentuated the economic power of Whale's character.
2016	Gods of Egypt	In the fantasy film, the principal cast of the Egyptian deities are portrayed by white European actors.
1937	Vorlage:Sortname	In the drama film about Chinese farmers, actors Paul Muni and Luise Rainer play Chinese characters.
2016	Vorlage:Sortname	In the film set in the Northern Song Dynasty of ancient China, Matt Damon stars in the lead role of William Garin. Director Zhang Yimou defended the casting choice, stating that Damon is not playing a role that was originally conceived for a Chinese actor. Two examples of critics providing differing opinions on the film: Pavan Shamdasani of Asia Times said, "His 'white man saves China' shtick brought together the wide spectrum of film critics, respected historians and the internet's most thin-skinned trolls, in an outpouring of sheer outrage against blatant Hollywood whitewashing." Ann Hornaday, chief film critic for The Washington Post, writes that "early concerns about Damon playing a 'white savior' in the film turn out to be unfounded: his character, a mercenary soldier, is heroic, but also clearly a foil for the superior principles and courage of his Chinese allies."
1960	Hell to Eternity	In the war drama film based on a true story, actor Jeffrey Hunter plays Guy Gabaldon, who in real life was of Mexican descent.
1993	Vorlage:Sortname	In the period drama set in Chile, actors Meryl Streep, Glenn Close, Jeremy Irons and Winona Ryder play Latin characters.
1963	Hud	In the drama film, actor Patricia Neal plays Alma, a housekeeper at a ranch, where in the original novel, Horseman, Pass By, the character was a black housekeeper named Halmea. A co-writer said of casting a white actor for the character, "We would have loved to keep her black for the movie. She has moral strength, she's benevolent, she's tough-minded, and she's secure in herself. So we would have loved to say to the world, 'Look, here's a hell of a woman, and she's black,' but in those days you simply couldn't do it, and not because the talent wasn't there—there were at least a half-dozen powerhouse black actresses who could have played that role. But the times weren't ready for it yet, and it was, of course, further complicated by the attempted rape."
2003	Vorlage:Sortname	In the drama film, actor Anthony Hopkins plays Coleman Silk, a former professor who is African-American and has been passing as white.
2012	Vorlage:Sortname	In the science fiction adventure film, actor Jennifer Lawrence stars as Katniss Everdeen, who author Suzanne Collins described to have the typical look of her district: olive skin, straight black hair, and grey eyes. Nicola Balkind in Fan Phenomena: The Hunger Games said that readers perceived Katniss and her people to be non-white; the film's casting call for Katniss specified a Caucasian appearance. Collins said Katniss as well as Gale "were not particularly intended to be biracial" as readers thought, "It is a time period where hundreds of years have passed from now. There's been a lot of ethnic mixing." Deidre Anne Evans Garriott, Whitney Elaine Jones and Julie Elizabeth Tyler said about the casting call, "Calling for a Caucasian actress clearly excludes other capable actresses and privileges whiteness in Hollywood.Vorlage:Nbsp... This casting choice over an actress who may look more like the Katniss Collins describes—and who may or may not self-identify as Caucasian—may challenge traditional ideas of beauty, and how Western society associates beauty with heroism."
1959	Imitation of Life	In the romantic drama film, actor Susan Kohner plays Sarah Jane, a mixed ethnicity woman who can pass as white.
1916	Intolerance	English actor Alfred Paget plays Prince Belshazzar of Babylon while German-American George Siegmann plays Persian king Cyrus the Great. Other white actors portray Judeans.
1951	Jim Thorpe - All-American	American actor Burt Lancaster stars as Native American, all-round Olympic athlete Jim Thorpe.
1966	Khartoum	English actor Sir Laurence Olivier plays the Sudanese leader Muhammed Ahmed whose devotees proclaimed him the Mahdi.
1956	Vorlage:Sortname	In the musical film, Yul Brynner plays the Thai king Mongkut. Despite Brynner claiming to have distant Mongolian ancestry, Brynner is widely considered a white actor.
2010	Vorlage:Sortname	In the martial arts action film based on the video game series, actor Sean Faris stars as the Japanese Kyo Kusanagi.
1954	King Richard and the Crusaders	British actor Rex Harrison stars as Kurdish sultan Saladin.
1963	Kings of the Sun	Yul Brynner stars as a Native American of the region of Texas. Actors George Chakiris and Shirley Anne Field star as Mayans from the Yucatán peninsular.
2010	The Last Airbender	In the fantasy adventure film based on the TV series Avatar: The Last Airbender, white actors play characters that are depicted as East Asian and Inuit in the TV series. In contrast, the imperial antagonists, among the fairest of the nations in the original animation, were largely played by darker, Southern East Asian actors. Nicola Peltz who plays the main female character Katara, is half Jewish on her father's side. In August 2020, Joey King, who had auditioned to play Katara in the film and is also half-Jewish, stated that "I do not believe a white woman should play a character of color. Not me or any white woman for that matter."
1962	Lawrence of Arabia	In the historical epic film, actor Alec Guinness plays the Arab Prince Faisal. Mexican-American actor Anthony Quinn portrays the Arab Auda Abu Tayi.
1989	Licence to Kill	In the James Bond film, Italian-American Robert Davi plays Colombian drug baron Franz Sanchez.
2011	The Lincoln Lawyer	In the legal drama film based on the novel by Michael Connelly, actor Matthew McConaughey portrays Mickey Haller, who is of Mexican descent. The 2022 Netflix series rectified this.
2013	Vorlage:Sortname	In the Western film, actor Johnny Depp plays the Comanche sidekick Tonto. Depp has claimed on several occasions that he has some Cherokee or Comanche ancestry.
1949	Lost Boundaries	In the drama film based on a true story, white actors play members of a family that is partly African-American but passes as white.
1973	Lost Horizon	In this fantasy drama film, English actor John Gielgud plays the role of a Tibetan
1969	Mackenna's Gold	In the western film, white actors Julie Newmar and Ted Cassidy play Native American characters.
1960	The Magnificent Seven	In the western, Eli Wallach plays a Mexican bandit, while Charles Bronson plays a character with Mexican-Irish heritage.
1987	Maharlika	An innocent native Filipina is played by American actress Dovie Beams.
1961	Vorlage:Sortname	In the comedy film, actor Alec Guinness plays a Japanese businessman.
1987	Vorlage:Sortname	In the comedy western film, actress Natalya Krachkovskaya plays a dark-skinned maid Conchita, actor Spartak Mishulin plays chief of the Comanches, actress Natalya Fateyeva plays chief's wife.
2015	Vorlage:Sortname	In the science fiction film based on the 2011 novel, actress Mackenzie Davis plays Mission Control satellite planner Mindy Park. Author Andy Weir said he "perceived" Mindy Park as Korean but said he did not explicitly write her as Korean. Another character from the book, Venkat Kapoor, who is of Hindu descent, also became Vincent Kapoor in the film, and is played by Chiwetel Ejiofor, a British actor of Nigerian descent.
1932	Vorlage:Sortname	In the adventure film, Anglo-Indian actor Boris Karloff and white actress Myrna Loy play Asians Fu Manchu and Fah Lo See. The Chinese embassy in Washington, D.C. issued a formal complaint against the film.
1998	The Mask of Zorro	Anthony Hopkins, Catherine Zeta-Jones and Stuart Wilson play Spaniards.
1929	Vorlage:Sortname	In the drama film, white actor Warner Oland plays Asian Dr. Fu Manchu, and does so in three other films featuring the character.
2007	Vorlage:Sortname	In the drama film based on the memoir, white actor Angelina Jolie plays Mariane Pearl, a French-born woman of Afro-Cuban descent.
1995	Mortal Kombat	In the martial arts action film based on the video game series, actor Christopher Lambert plays Raiden, a Japanese god.
2020	The New Mutants	In the horror comic book film, Italian Brazilian actor Henry Zaga plays Sunspot, who in the original comics was Afro-Brazilian. Alice Braga, who is also White Brazilian, plays Cecilia Reyes, who was originally Black Puerto Rican. On this matter, comics co-creator Bob McLeod said: "I was very disappointed that Roberto isn't short and dark-skinned. Yet another example of Hollywood white-washing. There's just no excuse. So basically, [director Josh Boone] erased everything I contributed to the way the characters look."
1987	Nightflyers	In the science fiction film, actor Catherine Mary Stewart plays Miranda Dorlac, who in the originating 1980 novella by George R. R. Martin was the black character Melantha Jhirl.
2014	Noah	The Biblical epic film features an all-white cast. White actor Russell Crowe plays the Biblical figure Noah. However, "fittingly for a Biblical story", two of the characters are played by Ashkenazi actors (Jennifer Connelly and Logan Lerman). Screenwriter Ari Handel said, "From the beginning, we were concerned about casting, the issue of race. What we realized is that this story is functioning at the level of myth, and as a mythical story, the race of the individuals doesn't matter. They're supposed to be stand-ins for all people.Vorlage:Nbsp... You either try to put everything in there, which just calls attention to it, or you just say, 'Let's make that not a factor, because we're trying to deal with everyman.'" Handel said the race of Noah's family was cast based on the foremost casting of Russell Crowe and that he avoided casting other races for people outside the family as not to show "racial differences between who lived and who died" and as a result make "a terrible, terrible statement".
1991	Not Without My Daughter	In the drama film, actor Alfred Molina, who is of Italian and Spanish descent, plays Sayyed Bozorg "Moody" Mahmoody, an Iranian physician.
1983	Octopussy	In this James Bond film, white actor Louis Jourdan plays Kamal Khan, an Afghani prince.
2013	Olympus Has Fallen	In the action film, actor Phil Austin plays the Latino U.S. Vice President Rodriguez.
1955	Othello	In the film based on William Shakespeare's tragedy play Othello (c. 1603), actor Sergei Bondarchuk plays in blackface the character Othello, the Moor of Venice.
1965	Othello	In the film based on William Shakespeare's tragedy play Othello (c. 1603), actor Laurence Olivier plays in blackface the character Othello, the Moor of Venice.
1961	Vorlage:Sortname	In the biographical film, actor Tony Curtis plays Ira Hayes, a U.S. Marine of Native American descent.
2015	Pan	In the fantasy film, actor Rooney Mara plays Tiger Lily, a Native American character.
1968	Vorlage:Sortname	In the comedy film, actor Peter Sellers plays an Indian actor.
1984	Vorlage:Sortname	In the historical drama film, actor Alec Guinness plays the Indian character Professor Godbole.
2000	Pay It Forward	In the drama film based on a novel, actor Kevin Spacey plays teacher Eugene Simonet. In the original book, the teacher is Reuben St. Clair, who is of African American descent.
1949	Pinky	In the race drama film, actor Jeanne Crain plays a partly African American character who can pass as white.
2017	Power Rangers	In the superhero film based on the television series, actress Elizabeth Banks plays Rita Repulsa, a role previously played by Japanese actress Machiko Soga in its source series Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger and in additional footage created specifically for use in American superhero show Power Rangers. While Soga's appearances were dubbed in English for the first season of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Hispanic actress Carla Perez physically portrayed the character throughout further seasons and following series Power Rangers Zeo, Power Rangers Turbo and Power Rangers in Space. Perez also appeared as the character in the theatrical film Turbo: a Power Rangers Movie; the role had previously been physically played by Hispanic actress Julia Cortez in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie. Soga later reappeared as the character in Power Rangers Mystic Force, though her performance had been originally intended for a different, unrelated character in source series Mahō Sentai Magiranger. All appearances of the character were dubbed in English by American voice actress Barbara Goodson, with the exception of the later appearance of Soga in Mystic Force, in which Rita Repulsa was voiced by New Zealand actress Susan Brady.
2010	Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time	The mostly-white ensemble cast portray Persians. The actor Jake Gyllenhaal who plays the main character is half Jewish on his mother's side.
1966	The Professionals	In the western, Jack Palance plays a Mexican bandit.
1985	Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins	In the action-adventure film, actor Joel Grey plays a Korean martial arts master who trains Remo Williams.
1991	Rhapsody in August	In the Japanese drama film film, actor Richard Gere plays the Japanese American nephew of an elderly Japanese atomic bomb survivor.
1957	Sayonara	In the film, Mexican-American actor Ricardo Montalbán plays Nakamura, a Japanese Kabuki performer.
1983	Scarface	Al Pacino, an Italian-American actor, plays Cuban drug lord Tony Montana, while Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio plays his sister.
1956	The Searchers	In the western, Jeffrey Hunter plays Martin Pawley, who is half Cherokee. Henry Brandon played Chief Scar.
1995	Shirli-myrli	At least four white actors play African-Americans. Mikhail Kokshenov and Aleksandr Pankratov-Chyorny play Ambassador's bodyguards, Valery Garkalin plays Patrick Crolikow, Vera Alentova plays Whitney Crolikow.
1986	Short Circuit	In the science fiction films, actor Fisher Stevens plays an Indian character.
1988	Short Circuit 2
1951	Show Boat	In the romantic drama film, actor Ava Gardner plays Julie, a character of mixed ethnicity. An actor of mixed ethnicity, Lena Horne, was originally cast to play Julie before the studio required a casting change.
2010	Vorlage:Sortname	In the drama film, biracial actor Max Minghella plays the ConnectU co-founder Divya Narendra, who is of Indian descent. Director David Fincher said, "we had read an enormous, probably a hundred, Indian actors who came in to read for Divya and I saw footage of the actual Divya Narendra who I've met now and he's kind of like Warren Beatty. There's nothing, aside from being incredibly tan, there's almost nothing that seems particularly ethnic about himVorlage:Nbsp... and we couldn't find somebody with that sort of smoothness. I looked and I looked and I looked. We went to London, Paris, Montreal, we cast from everywhere and finally in the end I just felt that Max had the most, kind of, I just wanted to make sure that Divya was an equal. He was the most important third wheel in this triumvirate." Actor Aziz Ansari commented, "These days, Indian people, real Indian people, pop up way more in film and television, but fake Indians are still around more than you think. I loved 'The Social Network,' but I have a hard time understanding why the Indian-American Harvard student Divya Narendra was played by Max Minghella, a half-Chinese, half-Italian British actor."
1926	Vorlage:Sortname	In the adventure drama film, actor Rudolph Valentino plays the lead Arab character.
1997	Spawn	In the superhero film, actor D.B. Sweeney plays Terry Fitzgerald, who is African-American in the comics. Spawn creator and executive producer on the film Todd McFarlane said, "[the decision] was somewhat based on the cold reality that if people perceive this as a black movie there would be no way we would receive the 45 million we were after. Terry's skin color has not been a major issue but what Terry stands for is more important...Every decision that I was directly involved in was based upon what would appeal to the greatest number of people while at the same time not offending the core audience."
2008	Speed Racer	In the film, Caucasian actors play the characters that are originally Asian in the Japanese manga and anime adaptation. Similarly, the names of the characters, all originally Japanese, are changed in favor of its Western regionalization. However, the character of Taejo Togokahn, played by Korean performer Rain, was created for the film as an homage.
2013	Star Trek Into Darkness	In the science fiction film, actor Benedict Cumberbatch plays the villain Khan Noonien Singh, who is of Indian descent. In his previous cinematic and television appearances (Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and "Space Seed"), the character is portrayed by Mexican actor of European descent Ricardo Montalbán.
1997	Starship Troopers	In the science fiction film, actor Casper Van Dien plays John Rico. In the original book, the character was Juan Rico of Filipino descent.
2015	Stonewall	The film about the Stonewall riots constructs a white male fictional protagonist who is shown to be a powerful catalyst to the historical riots. This is done most explicitly by reframing iconic historical moments and having them driven by him, thereby erasing the actual involvement of transgender and lesbian women of color, the historical actors. Director Roland Emmerich, himself gay, said, "I didn't make this movie only for gay people, I made it also for straight people. I kind of found out, in the testing process, that actually, for straight people, [Danny] is a very easy in. Danny's very straight-acting. He gets mistreated because of that. [Straight audiences] can feel for him." He said he and screenwriter Jon Robin Baitz consulted select historians and veterans and said, "There were only a couple of transgender women in the Stonewall ever. They were like a minority."
2007	Stuck	In the thriller film based on a true story, actor Mena Suvari plays Brandi Boski, who is based on Chante Jawan Mallardin who is African American.
2023	Tetris	In the biographical film, Welsh actor Taron Egerton plays video game publisher Henk Rogers, who is Dutch-Indonesian.
1956	Vorlage:Sortname	In the comedy film, actor Marlon Brando plays the Japanese character Sakini.
1956	Vorlage:Sortname	In the Biblical epic film, an ensemble cast composed almost entirely of non-Middle Eastern actors play Biblical figures of Jewish origin. Moses is played by Charlton Heston and Ramesses II is played by Yul Brynner.
1924	Vorlage:Sortname	In the swashbuckler film, actor Douglas Fairbanks plays the lead Arab character.
1958	Touch of Evil	In the crime noir, actor Charlton Heston plays Miguel Vargas, a Mexican drug enforcement official.
1969	Viva Max!	In this comedy film, actor Peter Ustinov plays the role of a Mexican general.
2008	Wanted	In the action film, actress Angelina Jolie plays Fox, who is African-American in the comics and modeled on actress Halle Berry.
2013	Warm Bodies	In the zombie comedy film, actress Analeigh Tipton plays Nora, who is depicted in the book as half-Ethiopian.
1979	The Warriors	In the action film, white actors portray the main cast of characters who were originally people of color in the novel by Sol Yurick. Director Walter Hill recalled, "Paramount wasn't too high on the idea of an all black cast, as they explained, for commercial reasons."
1983	We Are from Jazz	In the Soviet comedy musical film, actress and singer Larisa Dolina plays black Cuban singer Clementine Fernandez.
1961	West Side Story	In the romantic musical film, actress Natalie Wood plays Maria, who is of Puerto Rican descent, while George Chakiris plays her brother.
2016	Whiskey Tango Foxtrot	In the comedy-drama film based on a memoir and set in Afghanistan, actors Christopher Abbott and Alfred Molina portray Afghan characters. Tina Fey, who produced and starred in the film, said, "I had a lot of say. If your next question is, why is Chris Abbott not Afghan? — I did beg [the casting directors], 'Guys, my preference would be a native speaker.' They pleaded their case that Chris [was] their choice." Fey added, "Tricky thing is, Afghans [can be] Caucasians."
1975	Vorlage:Sortname	In the historical film, actor Sean Connery plays Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni, a leader of Berber insurrectionists.
1981	Windwalker	In the western film, actor Trevor Howard plays the role of a Cheyenne Native American.
2006	World Trade Center	In the disaster drama film based on the September 11 attacks, actor William Mapother plays Marine Sergeant Jason Thomas, who in real life is black.
1982	Vorlage:Sortname	In the drama film, actress Linda Hunt plays a male Chinese Australian dwarf.

(Bitte nicht löschen) - Zumindest so lang ich hier aktiv bin

Maciej Kamieński (1734–1821), kompozytor pieśni

Kozacka dziewczyna, mal. Serhij Wasylkiwski, ok. 1900 r.

Hej, sokoły, pierwotny tytuł Żal (również znane jako Żal za dziewczyną, Żal za Ukrainą, Na zielonej Ukrainie, Ukraina) – polska pieśń skomponowana przez Macieja Kamieńskiego (1734–1821), twórcę oper i wodewilów, w tym sztuki Nędza uszczęśliwiona z 1778 roku, uważanej za pierwszą polską operę. Pieśń (bez dodanego później refrenu) pochodzi prawdopodobnie z jednego z dzieł scenicznych Kamieńskiego lub została napisana jako samodzielny utwór wokalny. Nie jest znany autor tekstu, lecz wiadomo, że libretta do utworów Kamieńskiego pisali tacy poeci jak Franciszek Bohomolec, Wojciech Bogusławski, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz czy Hugo Kołłątaj.

W przeszłości podawano jako autora pieśni Tomasza Padurę, polsko-ukraińskiego poetę i kompozytora żyjącego w XIX wieku. Ballada jednak nie znajduje się w żadnym z czterech zbiorów z utworami Padury. Również żaden znawca twórczości Padury nie potwierdza jego autorstwa pieśni. Według innej opinii, również niepotwierdzonej, autorem tekstu miał był Józef Bohdan Zaleski, XIX-wieczny poeta, przedstawiciel ukraińskiej szkoły polskiego romantyzmu.

Treść

Kozacy zaporoscy na ukraińskim stepie, mal. Serhij Wasylkiwski, ok. 1890 r.

Kozak i dziewczyna u studni, mal. Józef Brandt, 1875 r.

Ułani na patrolu, mal. Czesław Wasilewski, I poł. XX w.

Ułan i wiejska dziewczyna, mal. Stanisław Bagieński, 1936

In der Originalversion war das Lied nur über die Empfindsamkeit, eine Geschichte über die Sehnsucht eines Jungen, der "an einem fremden Ort" bleibt, nach seiner schönäugigen Freundin, die in seinem "Land" geblieben ist, aber ohne anzugeben, um welches Land es sich handelt. Doch schon in Liederbüchern aus der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts wird neben der Sehnsucht nach einem zurückgelassenen Mädchen in einem fernen Land auch die Sehnsucht nach der „grünen Ukraine“ besungen, was das Lied in den aktuellen Trend der romantischen Faszination einschreibt. Die Ukraine und die Kosaken, präsent in der polnischen Literatur und Musik.

Den Charakter einer Grenzland-Ballade erhält das Lied durch einen im 20. Jahrhundert populär gewordenen Vers, der erklärt, dass das Mädchen und die grüne Ukraine von einem Kosaken oder Ulanen (je nach Version) verabschiedet werden, der sich zu Pferd vom Schwarzen Meer auf eine ferne Reise in ein fremdes Land begibt..

Geschichte

Najstarsza znana wersja tekstu nie ma nawiązań do Ukrainy ani refrenu zaczynającego się od słów Hej, sokoły. Z nieco zmienionymi słowami, już nawiązującymi do Ukrainy, pojawia się pod tytułem Żal, żal za jedyną lub Żal za Ukrainą w polskich śpiewnikach z drugiej połowy XIX wieku oraz z początku XX wieku.

Zachowały się również dwa zapisy dźwiękowe pieśni z początków XX wieku: w wykonaniu śpiewaka Witolda Szellera (1880-1929) na płycie Beka-Grand-Płyta, nr kat. 16472 (nie ustalony rok) oraz w wykonaniu śpiewaka Jana Sterna (1867-1949) na płycie Plattenfirma Syrena Rekord, nr kat. 8085, z 1908 roku. Oba wykonania różnią się nieznacznie tekstem, tempem i melodią od współczesnych wersji. Nie zawierają zwrotki Hej, sokoły..., a rolę refrenu pełni zwrotka zaczynająca się od słów Żal, żal za dziewczyną....

Według ustaleń Zbigniewa Adrjańskiego refren zaczynający się od słów Hej, sokoły jest późniejszym dodatkiem. Tekst refrenu występuje dopiero w harcerskim śpiewniku z ok. 1917 roku, natomiast melodia refrenu została zapisana w śpiewniku harcerskim Nad Olzą z 1937 roku. W obu publikacjach nie jest podany autor tekstu ani melodii refrenu.

Ballada stała się popularna na początku XX wieku wśród polskich harcerzy i sokolników, a później także wśród żołnierzy, zwłaszcza w czasie wojny polsko-bolszewickiej. Została wówczas spopularyzowana przez polskich żołnierzy na Ukrainie, gdzie z przetłumaczonym na ukraiński tekstem, traktowana jest obecnie jako „ukraińska pieśń ludowa”. Pieśń śpiewana jest również jako utwór tradycyjny po Belarussische Sprache. W Polsce śpiewana była jako piosenka turystyczna i harcerska, a obecnie jako popularny utwór weselny.

Wykonawcy i covery

Polska

Od lat 90. XX wieku, wraz z wzrostem popularności w Polsce muzyki disco polo i tzw. muzyki biesiadnej, utwór wykorzystywany był przez szereg mniej lub bardziej znanych wykonawców, wśród których byli m.in. Maryla Rodowicz, Krzysztof Krawczyk, Bayer Full, Boys i wiele innych. Stał się również stałym elementem polskich tradycyjnych wesel.

W pierwszych dekadach XXI wieku piosenka jest również interpretowana przez wykonawców różnych gatunków nawiązujących w swojej twórczości do muzyki folkowej.

Ukraina

Na Ukrainie piosenkę wykonywali między innymi zespół Tercja Pikardyjska, Ołeh Skrypka, Wołodymyr Werminski czy zespoły Zornaja Nicz, Brunettes Shoot Blondes i Chumatskyi Shlyah. Pieśń wykonuje, również po polsku, podczas swoich występów Narodowy Chór Ukrainy im. G. Wierowki. Popularna ukraińska grupa pop i dance Mirami w 2019 roku nagrała swoją wersję Sokołów zarówno po ukraińsku, jak i po polsku. Wykonania zespołu Mirami zyskały popularność również w serwisie TikTok. W 2021 roku swoją ambientową interpretację przedstawiła grupa Mavka.

Wersje polsko-ukraińskie

Pojawiły się również wykonania łączące wersję polską i ukraińską. Piosenka stała się na powrót popularna po rosyjskiej agresji na Ukrainę w 2022 roku, stając się symbolem wsparcia Ukrainy przez polskie społeczeństwo oraz bliskości kulturowej obu narodów. Jako wyraz wdzięczności za polskie wsparcie w czasie wojny dwujęzyczne wersje nagrali ukraińscy wykonawcy, min. Tercja Pikardyjska i piosenkarka Eileen.

Białoruś

Na Białorusi grupa Zenon wykonała piosenkę po białorusku w wersji: Hej, Litwiny... (dwie wersje).

Słowacja i Czechy

W roku 2015 popularność na Słowacji zyskało wykonanie po polsku piosenki przez grupę Kollárovci (do końca 2020 osiągnęło ponad 9 milionów odsłon na Youtube).

W czerwcu 2017 ukazało się nagranie piosenki w języku słowackim wykonane przez rockowy zespół IMT Smile z udziałem wokalisty Ondreja Kandráča, które promowało film Linia (słow. Čiara). Piosenka okazała się najpopularniejszym przebojem lata 2017 roku na Słowacji. Zajęła pierwsze miejsce na liście przebojów najpopularniejszej słowackiej rozgłośni Rádio Expres. Na serwisie Youtube piosenka osiągnęła (do września 2021 roku) ponad 20 milionów odsłon i dodatkowo ponad 7,5 miliona odsłon wykonanie live na kanale Radia Expres.

W 2020 utwór na swojej płycie wykonał również słowacki wykonawca Ján Hruška.

Wykonanie IMT Smile stało się również popularne w Czechach, gdzie krótko potem pojawiły się wersje z czeskim tekstem.

Litwa

Piosenka zyskała również popularność na Litwie. W styczniu 2021 swoją wersję piosenki nagrała litewska piosenkarka polskiego pochodzenia Katažina Zvonkuvienė.

Rosja

Tekst śpiewany jest również po rosyjsku. Po polsku wykonuje go wojskowy Chór Aleksandrowa. W lipcu 2022 piosenkę po ukraińsku nagrała rosyjska piosenkarka i gwiazda serwisu TikTok Kira Shine.

Rezeption in Filmen

• Piosenka pojawiła się w pierwszym odcinku serialu Dorastanie z 1987 roku (akcja dzieje się w 1972 roku).
• Melodia Na zielonej Ukrainie została wykorzystana kilkukrotnie w filmie Jerzego Hoffmana Ogniem i mieczem z 1999 roku.
• Piosenka w słowackim wykonaniu rockowym zespołu IMT Smile pojawiła się również w ukraińsko-słowackim filmie Linia (słow. Čiara, ukr. Межа) z 2017 roku.

Tekst

Tekst pierwotny

Die älteste Version des von Zbigniew Adrjański erstellten Textes:

Żal

Żal, żal za jedyną, Ukochaną mą dziewczyną, Oj, żal za mojemi, Za oczkami czarownemi. Przepióreczka moja mała, Ona biedna tam została, A ja tutaj w obcej stronie Dniem i nocą tęsknię do niej. Oj, żal za jedyną, Ukochaną mą dziewczyną, Oj, żal za mojemi Za oczkami czarownemi. Żal, żal za jedyną, Za hołubką, za dziewczyną, Żal, żal, serce boli Nie ma mojej złotej doli. Jeszcze wina, jeszcze grajcie, A jak umrę pochowajcie Tam daleko, przy dziewczynie, Przy jedynej, w mej krainie. Oj, żal za jedyną Za kochaną, za dziewczyną, Oj, żal, serce boli, Szkoda mojej złotej doli.

Zeitgenössischer Text

Tekst polski	Tekst ukraiński	Tekst białoruski
Hej, tam gdzieś znad Czarnej Wody Wsiada na koń kozak [lub: ułan] młody. Czule żegna się z dziewczyną, Jeszcze czulej z Ukrainą. Chór: Hej, hej, hej sokoły Omijajcie góry, lasy, (pola,) doły. Dzwoń, dzwoń, dzwoń dzwoneczku, Mój stepowy skowroneczku. Hej, hej... Wiele dziewcząt jest na świecie, Lecz najwięcej w Ukrainie. Tam me serce pozostało, Przy kochanej mej dziewczynie. (Chór) Ona biedna tam została, Przepióreczka moja mała, A ja tutaj w obcej stronie Dniem i nocą tęsknię do niej. (Chór) Żal, żal za dziewczyną, Za zieloną Ukrainą, Żal, żal serce płacze, Już jej więcej nie zobaczę. (Chór) Jak na łąkach kwitną wieńce tak na licach jej rumieńce a w oczętach taka siła że mi w głowie zawróciła. (Chór) Pędź, pędź czwórko siwa kędy moja czarnobrywa leć, leć między sosny gdzie krajobraz wiecznej Wiosny. (Chór) Wina, wina, wina dajcie, A jak umrę pochowajcie Na zielonej Ukrainie Przy kochanej mej dziewczynie. (Chór)	Гей, десь там, де чорні води, Сів на коня козак молодий. Плаче молода дівчина, Їде козак з України. Приспів: Гей! Гей! Гей, соколи! Оминайте гори, ліси, доли. Дзвін, дзвін, дзвін, дзвіночку, Степовий жайвороночку Гей! Гей! Гей, соколи! Оминайте гори, ліси, доли. Дзвін, дзвін, дзвін, дзвіночку, Мій степовий дзвін, дзвін, дзвін Жаль, жаль за милою, За рідною стороною. Жаль, жаль серце плаче, Більше її не побачу. (Приспів) Меду, вина наливайте Як загину поховайте На далекій Україні Коло милої дівчини. (Приспів) Гей, десь там, де чорні води Сів на коня козак молодий Плаче молода дівчина Їде козак з України (Приспів)	Гэй, над рэчкай, над чарненькай Сядлаў коня казачэнька, Развітаўся ён з дзяўчынай, Ды з каханай Украінай. прыпеў: Гэй, гэй, гэй саколы, Абмінайце горы, лясы, долы. Звон, звон, звон званочак, Мой стэповы жаўраночак. (прыпеў) Жаль, жаль, па дзяўчыне, Па зялёнай Украіне. Жаль, жаль, сэрца плача, Жаль, бо ён яе не ўбачыць. (прыпеў) Засталася ў любым краі Перапёлачка малая, А я тут, мне на чужбіне Ад растання сэрца стыне. (прыпеў) Мёду, мёду, мёду дайце, А памру, дык пахавайце, На зялёнай Украіне, Пры каханай мне дзяўчыне. Гэй, гэй, гэй саколы, Абмінайце горы, лясы, долы. Звон, звон, звон званочак, Мой стэповы жаўраночак, звонь.

Andere Versionen

Hej, sokoly wyk. IMT Smile, sł. Vladimír Puchala język słowacki

Літвіны (Litwini) wyk. i sł. Zenon język białoruski

V dobrom aj v zlom budeš moja Rany tie sa s tebou zhoja Keď je slnko, keď je zima Ty si moja domovina Refrén: Hej, hej, hej, hej, sokoly Z výšky hľadia na to všetko, čo nás bolí Zvoň, zvoň, zvoň nad krajinou Rozliehaj sa letom, zimou Láska moja, kraj môj drahý Tu sme boli chlapci malí Raz ma nájdeš pod tou hlinou Letia vtáci nad krajinou (refrén) Hej, des tam, de čorni vody Siv na koňa kozak molody Plače moloda divčina Jide kozak z Ukrajiny (refrén)

Дзесьці там ля роднай хаты Ускочыў на каня гусар крылаты Развітаўся з татам з мамай Ды прыгажуняю Святланай Рэфрэн: Гэй, гэй, гэй, Літвіны Амінайце пушчы ды нізіны Грай, Грай, Грай званочак Мой сінявокі сакалочак Вее, вее,вее, вее вецер Раскідала нас па белым свеце Сэрца б'ецца на Радзіму рвецца На момант спыніцца і зноў заб'ецца (Рэфрэн) Ой дарожка доўгая да дому За Вялікае Княства за Карону Пераможам ворагаў спакусы Мы ж Літвіны, Мы ж Беларусы (Рэфрэн)

Einzelnachweise

Doppelstern Gaia BH1
Künstlerische Darstellung von Gaia BH1 und seinem Begleitstern
Beobachtungsdaten Äquinoktium: J2000.0, Epoche: J2000.0
Sternbild	Schlangenträger
Scheinbare Helligkeit	13.77 mag
Bekannte Exoplaneten	•••
Astrometrie
Entfernung	1560 ± 10 Lj (478 ± 5 pc)
Einzeldaten
Namen	A; B
Beobachtungsdaten:
Rektaszension	A	h m
	B	h m
Deklination	A
	B
Typisierung:
Spektralklasse	A	G

Vorlage:Infobox Doppelstern/Wartung/RekDekSizeLeerVorlage:Infobox Doppelstern/Wartung/Einzelkoordinaten

Rockstar Games programmers at the Game Developers Choice Awards 2019

Rockstar verwendete Motion Capture, um die Darbietungen der Besetzung aufzuzeichnen, sowie Gesichtskameras, um ihre Gesichtsreaktionen für spätere Animationen aufzunehmen. Die geheim gehaltene Handlung führte dazu, dass die Schauspieler und der Regisseur während der Produktion unsicher über die Zukunft der Charaktere waren.

Die Autoren arbeiteten weiter am Drehbuch, während die Schauspieler ihre Szenen in Segmenten drehten. Rockstar wollte eine vielfältige Besetzung von Charakteren innerhalb der Van der Linde-Gang und legte besonderen Wert auf die individuellen Geschichten hinter jedem Charakter. Während eines der Hauptthemen des ursprünglichen Spiels der Schutz der Familie um jeden Preis war, erzählt Red Dead Redemption 2 die Geschichte des Zusammenbruchs einer Familie in Form der Van-der-Linde-Gang.

Red Dead Redemption 2 ist das erste Spiel von Rockstar, das speziell für PlayStation 4 und Xbox One entwickelt wurde.

Red Dead Redemption 2 wurde offiziell im Oktober 2016 angekündigt; Es wurde stark beworben und weithin erwartet. Rockstar verpasste das ursprüngliche Veröffentlichungsdatum und verzögerte das Spiel zweimal, um es weiter zu optimieren. Rockstar vermarktete das Spiel über Videotrailer und kündigte im Laufe der Entwicklung spezifische Details über das Spiel an. Verschiedene Sondereditionen des Spiels wurden veröffentlicht. Der Online-Multiplayer-Modus des Spiels, Red Dead Online, startete seine Beta im November 2018; sie endete im Mai 2019.

History and overview

Die Vorarbeiten zu Red Dead Redemption 2 begannen kurz nach der Veröffentlichung des im Jahr 2010 veröffentlichten Vorgängers Red Dead Redemption.Publisher Rockstar Games begann während der Produktion des ersten Spiels interne Pitches für eine Fortsetzung zu erhalten und fand die Idee einer Gang-Erzählung „zu überzeugend, um sich abzuwenden“.[3] Vice President of Creativity Dan Houser sprach Anfang 2011 mit Rockstar San Diego, dem Studio hinter dem Originalspiel, über die Charaktere und den Stil des Spiels. Mitte des Jahres hatte das Team einen groben Entwurf, und Ende 2012 waren die groben Drehbücher des Spiels fertiggestellt. Houser führte Videokonferenzen mit Abteilungsleitern aus allen Büros von Rockstar weltweit.[4] Als Rockstar Games erkannte, dass eine Gruppe unterschiedlicher Studios nicht unbedingt funktionieren würde, kooptierte es alle seine Studios in ein großes Team, [2] genannt Rockstar Studios, [5] [6], um die Entwicklung unter 1.600 Entwicklern zu erleichtern. insgesamt arbeiteten rund 2.000 Menschen an dem Spiel.[2] Analysten schätzen das Entwicklungsbudget des Spiels zwischen Vorlage:US$ und Vorlage:US$ und das Marketingbudget zwischen Vorlage:US$ und Vorlage:US$; mit einer Summe aus Vorlage:US$ und Vorlage:US$ wäre es eines der teuersten Videospiele, die je entwickelt wurden.[7]

Preliminary work on Red Dead Redemption 2 began shortly following the release of the original game, Red Dead Redemption (2010). Publisher Rockstar Games began receiving internal pitches for a sequel during production of the first game, and found the idea of a gang narrative "too compelling to turn away". Vice President of Creativity Dan Houser spoke to Rockstar San Diego, the studio behind the original game, in early 2011 about the game's characters and style. The team had a rough outline by mid-year, and by late 2012, rough scripts of the game had been completed. Houser had video conference calls with department directors from all of Rockstar's worldwide offices. When Rockstar Games realized that a group of distinct studios would not necessarily work, it co-opted all of its studios into one large team, dubbed Rockstar Studios, to facilitate development among 1,600 developers; a total of around 2,000 people worked on the game. Analyst estimations place the game's development budget between Vorlage:US$ and Vorlage:US$, and its marketing budget between Vorlage:US$ and Vorlage:US$; with a combined total between Vorlage:US$ and Vorlage:US$, this would make it one of the most expensive video games ever developed.

In October 2018, Houser stated that the team had been working 100-hour weeks "several times" throughout the year. Many sources interpreted this statement as "crunch time" for the entire development staff of the game, comparable to similar accusations made by wives of Rockstar San Diego employees in regards to the development of the game's predecessor, with Rockstar Games receiving strong criticism. The following day, Rockstar clarified in a statement that the work duration mentioned by Houser only affected the senior writing staff for Red Dead Redemption 2, which comprised himself, Michael Unsworth, Rupert Humphries and Lazlow Jones, and that the duration had only been the case for three weeks during the entire development. Houser also added that the company would never expect or force any employee to work as long as was stated, and if anyone was staying late at the development studios, it would be due to their passion for the project. However, other Rockstar employees argued that Houser's statements did not give an accurate picture of the "crunch-time culture" at the company that many of its employees worked under, which included "mandatory" overtime and years-long periods of crunch. Due to the salary-based nature of employment contracts, many of these employees were not compensated for their overtime work and instead depended on year-end bonus payments that hinged on the sales performance of the game. Nonetheless, a sentiment echoed across many employee statements was the observation that working conditions had somewhat improved since development on the original Red Dead Redemption, which had been so demanding that a number of the developers' spouses had voiced their disapproval to Rockstar. By April 2020, several employees reported that the company had made significant changes as a result of the publicity surrounding the work culture, and many were cautiously optimistic about Rockstar's future.

Story and setting

The vistas in the game's world were inspired by the paintings of artists such as Albert Bierstadt.

While one of the main themes of the original game was to protect family at all costs, Red Dead Redemption 2 tells the story of the breakdown of a family in the form of the Van der Linde gang. The team were interested in exploring the story of why the gang fell apart, as frequently mentioned in the first game. Josh Bass, art director at Rockstar San Diego, felt that the presence of gang leader Dutch van der Linde "loomed over" the original game. Like the first game, Red Dead Redemption 2 is set during the fall of the American frontier, in a world becoming too modern for the gang. Aaron Garbut, director of art at Rockstar North, said that Rockstar "aimed to capture a wide slice of American life in 1899, a rapidly industrializing nation that would soon have its sights on the world stage". The team were focused on creating an accurate reflection of the time period, with people and locations. The citizens in the game contrast between rich and poor, while the locales contrast between the civilization and the wilderness.

In regards to the scale of the narrative, Houser described it as "more like Thackeray than Hemingway", with several changes in the characters, locations, and ideologies. Houser was inspired by film and literature when writing the game, though he avoided contemporary works to avoid being accused of theft of ideas. He cited Uriah Heep, the fictional character from Charles Dickens's David Copperfield (1850), and some of the work of Arthur Conan Doyle as significant influences, as well as Henry James, John Keats, and Émile Zola. Houser aimed to have some parts of the game's narrative reflect contemporary events but not in a direct manner, noting that "It's more this sensation that we found interesting in the 19th century that spoke to us, and I hope it speaks to people about today's problems". He did not want the game to be viewed as a work of history, but rather as a work of historical fiction, opting to allude to historical events instead of retelling them due to their unpleasantness. Houser wanted the gang's withdrawal from society to be the antithesis of the game's calm opening. The first chapter was viewed as a method to freshen the landscape, pitting a group of cowboys against a snowy blizzard. The team redesigned the game's opening chapter for its extensive length, as Houser considered it the most important chapter. Rockstar North co-studio head Rob Nelson felt that the game's ending was "the right ending" for the game, due to the nature of the original title.

The final script for the game's main story was around 2,000 pages, though Houser estimated that the pile of pages "would be eight feet high" if all side missions and additional dialogue was included. Individual pedestrian actors each had scripts of around 80 pages in length. About five hours of the game were dumped before release, some of which featured a second love interest for the protagonist as well as a mission taking place on a train with bounty hunters. Houser noted that the loss of these missions was because "they were never going to work technically or be quite slick enough, or they felt superfluous".

Garbut stated that the team were not specifically inspired by film or art but rather real locations, noting that they "were building a place, not a linear or static representation". Lighting director Owen Shepherd was inspired by pastoral painters such as J. M. W. Turner and Rembrandt. The vistas in the game's open world were partly inspired by luminous paintings from artists such as Albert Bierstadt, Frank Tenney Johnson, and Charles Marion Russell. Saint Denis is modeled on the city of New Orleans. Rockstar designed the game world so that it responds to the ongoing narrative. Nelson stated that the team were "obsessed with [the world] feeling natural or organic in every respect". He noted that the team were "trying to build worlds that people believe in, that they can get lost in".

Character development

Some of the main cast members of the game: Roger Clark, Alex McKenna, and Rob Wiethoff

Red Dead Redemption 2s recording sessions began in 2013 and lasted a total of 2,200 days. The game features 1,200 actors, 700 of whom share the game's 500,000 lines of voiced dialogue. In addition to using motion capture to record the performances, Rockstar also used face cameras to record their facial reactions for later animation; around 60 or 70 cameras were used in total. The motion capture sets were typically accurate to the dimensions of the in-game setting, which could be displayed to the actors and crew on a monitor in a previsualization format. The secretive nature of Rockstar's development meant that the actors and director were unsure about the future of the characters during production; the writers continued to work on the script while the actors shot their scenes in segments.

Rockstar wanted a diverse cast of characters within the Van der Linde gang. Senior creative writer Michael Unsworth noted that the ensemble was advantageous when writing the narrative, as it helped to craft the story and added complexity to the game. The writers put particular focus on the individual stories behind each character, exploring their life prior to the gang and their reasons for remaining with the group. Unsworth felt that the gang is a "family" that offers "a sense of belonging and purpose", and that analyzing each story—and each character's relationship with Arthur—was important for the narrative. Several characters were cut from the game during development as their personalities failed to add to the narrative. Some lines of dialogue from the first game, in which Dutch is described as an equitable leader, allowed the team to create a diverse group of characters in the gang. The developers often allowed the actors to take scenes in their own direction in order to develop the characters in new ways. The actors sometimes improvised some additional lines, but mostly remained faithful to the script.

The team decided that the player would control one character in Red Dead Redemption 2, as opposed to the three protagonists in Rockstar's previous title Grand Theft Auto V (2013), in order to follow the character more personally and understand how the events impact him. They felt that a single character felt more appropriate for the narrative structure of a Western. Nelson felt that the decision to limit to one protagonist shaped the other creative decisions of development. The conversations and sense of life within the gang environment was inspired by Grand Theft Auto Vs exploration of the lives of two of the game's playable characters while the player was controlling the other one. Rockstar wanted to grant agency to the player when experiencing the story of Arthur; Unsworth noted that Arthur is controlled by neither the storytellers nor the player, but his control consists of "a delicate push and pull between the two". The team attempted to give the player more freedom with Arthur's relationship with other characters; when the narrative begins, Arthur has already formed relationships with the other gang members, so the team aimed to develop them in a way for the player to respond appropriately.

For his portrayal as Arthur Morgan, actor Roger Clark took main inspiration from Toshiro Mifune. He found that Mifune's characters were very stoic while also having a "crazy" sense of humor, a complexity he wanted to portray within Arthur. Clark also took inspiration from The Proposition (2005) as it involved a similar situation to Arthur's, wherein he is forced to betray some of his loyalties. He watched films such as High Noon (1952), as well as the work of John Wayne; despite watching the Dollars Trilogy (1964–1966) he did not take much inspiration from Clint Eastwood's portrayal of the Man with No Name, as he felt that Arthur was more talkative. Clark wanted to portray a character that was complex enough for the player to choose his path and still make sense. He initially faced difficulty with this concept, as the high honor performance was different to the low honor, but he reminded himself that Arthur was a complex character who could easily contradict himself. He aimed to portray vulnerability with Arthur's ego. Clark felt that Arthur initially resented John Marston, as he had a family—something Arthur wishes he could have—but as the gang begins to fall apart, Arthur acts to help John, "try[ing] to do what he wishes he could have done for himself". Clark looked to Rob Wiethoff's portrayal as John in the first game for inspiration with his own performance.

Houser was interested in subverting the trope of the protagonist starting as weak and becoming stronger as the story progresses; instead, Arthur is already tough at the beginning of the game, and is "taken on a more intellectual roller coaster when his world view gets taken apart". Houser felt that the decline of the American frontier has a deep impact on Arthur, noting that the character is "caught between the nastiness of nature and the brutality of encroaching industrialization in civilization". Houser avoided meeting Roger Clark, who portrays Arthur, on set to avoid hearing his real voice.

When Benjamin Byron Davis was asked to reprise his role as Dutch van der Linde, he was unsure of the nature and importance of the role until production began; he first heard about his reprisal in mid-2013, and received about the first 100 pages of the script at the end of the year. As Davis is much taller than Dutch, the animators had to adjust the height from the motion capture performances to fit the character, including eye lines of other characters. Brent Werzner often stepped in as a body double for some takes. Davis portrayed Dutch "in his prime"—as a charming, confident man—for about a year before playing the decline of the character. Unsworth felt that Dutch views himself not as a criminal, but somebody fighting against a "corrupt system of power that's been set up to divide and suppress". He noted that Dutch's "anarchic, anti-establishment rhetoric" was compelling for the gang to remain with him.

Davis felt that Dutch was motivated by a "noble drive", believing in the greater good; Davis described the character as a "principled man", but felt that Dutch began to evolve into a villain particularly when faced against characters who were powerful figures in their areas, such as Catherine Braithwaite and Angelo Bronte. Davis felt that Dutch's downfall takes place when he witnesses the corruption of other people achieving the "utopia" that he wants for his own gang and realizes that he does not want the same to happen to him. Davis thought that when Dutch does not have his best friend Hosea Matthews by his side, he is unable to hear criticism; when Arthur tries to help Dutch "see the light", Dutch begins to distrust him, instead turning to the "unwavering [...] support" of Micah". Davis felt that Dutch's dream paradise would be at Horseshoe Overlook, in the game's second chapter, where he was constantly looking to the future. Davis says that Dutch "was a dreamer. The journey was more important than any arrival". Davis felt that, by the end of the game, Dutch was also seeking redemption for his mistakes, which is why he does not harm John or his family.

When developing John Marston, the protagonist of the original game, the writers felt that his previous appearance could be limiting to them, since players have already resonated with the character. Rob Wiethoff, who reprises his role as John, looked to his own life when returning to the character; he always looked up to his older sister's male friends for approval in the same way that John looks up to the rest of the gang for validation. He also took inspiration from the "pretty tough dudes" in his home town of Seymour, Indiana for John's personality. Cali Elizabeth Moore, who portrays John's wife Abigail Roberts, found ease in recording the couple's proposal scene, as both her and Wiethoff remembered their own proposals; she recalled only recording the scene twice, due to the emotion. Moore also became emotional during the scenes in which Abigail's son Jack is returned to the camp, considering if the scenario was applied to her own children.

The actors formed a close bond during production, which helped with individual performances. Actress Alex McKenna said that the scene in which Sadie Adler gets her revenge "haunted [her] a little", as she experienced a lot of Sadie's backstory up to that point. Motion capture director Rod Edge described Sadie as "so feminine but so tough". McKenna appreciated the lack of stereotyping with the characters, and enjoyed that Sadie was written as Arthur's equal instead of his love interest. Noshir Dalal resonated with the character of Charles Smith, whose father is African-American and mother is Native American, as Dalal is half-Japanese and half-Parsi. He drew experiences from his personal life when portraying the character. The original actor for Charles was recast as the team felt he did not fit. Gabriel Sloyer felt that Javier Escuella is "looking for home, somewhere to belong", feeling torn between grasping at the American Dream and longing for his home in Mexico. Sloyer considered his own father, also named Javier, and his experience with immigrating to the United States. Peter Blomquist described the character of Micah Bell as a "slimy opportunist". He opted to develop the character from scratch, instead of taking specific inspiration from others.

Technical and gameplay development

Red Dead Redemption 2 is the first game from Rockstar built specifically for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. Rockstar had tested the technical capabilities of the consoles when porting Grand Theft Auto V—the game was originally released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, so pushing the technology allowed the team to see what was possible on the new hardware. Once the team had defined what limitations were sustainable, they found the areas that required the most focus: according to graphics technical director Alex Hadjadj, "things like a global lighting solution, atmospheric effects, or post processing and presentation". Red Dead Redemption 2 allowed for about 10 times the amount of animations over Grand Theft Auto V due to the additional memory of the consoles. While Grand Theft Auto V required dense crowds in the city streets, Red Dead Redemption 2 demanded populated towns with identifiable characters, so the technology was evolved to allow this.

Technical director Phil Hooker stated that the number of animations required for the individual character reactions was unlike any previous Rockstar game. Rockstar overhauled its entire animation system for the game to achieve more believable human and animal behavior on the new generation of consoles. A significant range of animations was added for enemy artificial intelligence to make them appear natural during combat. Subtle animations were emphasized by the developers to make the world feel more believable; Rockstar upgraded its Euphoria physics engine for the game's development, and completely overhauled its AI system for the first time in 17 years.

One of Rockstar's goals with Red Dead Redemption 2s gameplay was to make the player feel as though they inhabit a living world, instead of playing missions and watching cutscenes. A method used to achieve this was through the gang's moving camp, where the player can interact with other characters. The team ensured that the characters maintained the same personality and mood from cutscene to gameplay to make the world feel more alive and realistic. Unsworth described the camp as "one of the most ambitious things" done by the studio. Rockstar felt that the gameplay mechanics allowed the writers to "delve deeper" into the game's characters.

A significant part of making the game world feel alive was to create routines for the gang members around camp, including activities and chores they partake in, and times of day that they are awake. This was a system previously explored in Grand Theft Auto V, particularly with one of the protagonists' family home, but Houser also cites the Mexican town of Chuparosa from Red Dead Redemption, which was full of characters performing minor tasks. Another method to achieve realism was to have characters converse with each other at camp, which the player can choose to respond to; should the player respond frequently, characters will begin to invite their responses in future conversations. The game also features a "walk-and-talk system", where characters briefly follow the player and inform them of events in the game world—a system previously transmitted through the use of the character's mobile phone in Grand Theft Auto V. Some of the game's missions were deliberately placed to demonstrate Arthur's personality; for example, a mission where Arthur gets drunk is placed before a mission wherein he saves Micah from prison, reflecting that Arthur does not care as much about Micah's fate.

The team decided to limit the weapon inventory to a select number of guns, to maintain realism; all other owned weapons remain with the player's horse, also serving as a way to increase the player's bond with the animal. Rockstar was careful not to include too much realism in the game—such as a full, extensive animation to skin an animal—to avoid boring players. Some of the teams at Rockstar felt that simply existing and surviving in the wilderness was a big draw to the original game, so attempted to expand upon this idea in Red Dead Redemption 2. When replaying the game throughout development, the team discovered conflict in the missions forcing the player to behave badly and those forcing them to behave well. As a result, they crafted branching scenes and dialogue options based on the player's behavior in the game, which ties into the Honor system.

The team considered the idea of the player being able to take camp members to different activities, such as fishing, but ultimately felt that it led to more AI-like behavior instead of more a realistic tone. Several activities within the game, especially those that were out of character for Arthur, were stripped back to become optional to the player. Some tasks also became optional if they included any opportunity for the player to grow and reflect. The gunplay was revised from Rockstar's previous games to improve the feeling and speed of using the weapons. Late in the game's development, senior staff at Rockstar decided to add letterboxing to the game's cutscenes, requiring more work for cinematics staff and reshoots for the cast.

Music production

Woody Jackson, who worked with Rockstar on the original game and Grand Theft Auto V, returned to compose Red Dead Redemption 2s original score. Jackson composed roughly 60 hours of music for the game, but not every track made the final product; the game has 192 interactive mission tracks. Ivan Pavlovich, director of music and audio, estimated that the player would only hear around one-third of the total music created for the game in a standard playthrough. Red Dead Redemption 2 has three different types of score: narrative, which is heard during the missions in the game's story; interactive, when the player is roaming the open world or in multiplayer; and environmental, which includes campfire singing songs or a character playing music in the world. The game's music regularly reacts according to the player's decisions in the world, matching the game's atmosphere and the player's choices. Jackson's goal with the ambient music is for it to accompany the game's sound design and not become distracting for the player. Comparing the game to a television season, Jackson considers a mission to be like an episode, as it tells an individual story arc while maintaining the same themes across multiple missions. For the narrative music, Jackson maintains the same tempo and key to avoid any clutter. At one point during development, he used around 15 stems, but ultimately brought it back to around six.

To ensure that his music was effective for the game, Jackson listened to the music while shooting at a target range using a gun from the game's time period. He also purchased several instruments from the Wrecking Crew that were featured on classic cowboy films, such as Dennis Budimir's 1898 Martin 1-28 gut string and Tommy Tedesco's Harmina Salinas Hijas gut string. During recording, Jackson played cues to each musician using call and response, to which they would respond organically, either copying Jackson's cue or playing how they felt. This system took place over a few days, and the tracks make up most of the open world music. Several recording tools were used to capture the music, dating from a 1959 8-track tape to the modern digital workstation Pro Tools. When creating the score, Jackson gathered musician friends like bassist Mike Watt, violinist Petra Haden, and drummer Jon Theodore for jam sessions, often using Jackson's old instruments.

While the first game imitated popular Spaghetti Western film soundtracks, the second game aimed to become more unique. Jackson estimated that he changed the music about four times throughout development, from extreme experimentation to classic Western sounds, ultimately blending to make "something different". Pavlovich felt that in order to find an effective result with the score, they had to "push it almost until you break it, and then you swing back". To avoid imitating the bell used in Spaghetti Western soundtracks, Jackson instead used a mandolin used by the Wrecking Crew. The music team found reference points in Willie Nelson's album Teatro (1998) and the soundtrack for the 1971 film The Hired Hand. Session guitarist Matt Sweeney took inspiration from segments of other music—such as the insistent drums in the work of Ennio Morricone—without being derivative. While researching for the game's score, Jackson found that Morricone's work—particularly on Sergio Leone's Dollars Trilogy—was already a departure from typical Western music of the time, instead featuring sounds popular at the time such as "psychedelic guitars, lots of noises", so Jackson felt that he could also take such creative liberties with Red Dead Redemption 2. Similarly, he was even more influenced by Masaru Sato's score on Akira Kurosawa's film Yojimbo (1961), which he felt focused on emotion rather than trying to replicate the sound of feudal Japan, the film's setting.

In total, over 110 musicians worked on the music for the game. Sweeney noted that several musicians turned down offers to work on the soundtrack, due to their unfamiliarity with the industry and technology. Pavlovich engaged Daniel Lanois to produce all of the game's original vocal tracks, wanting a consistent "through-line" to complement Jackson's score. Lanois collaborated with artists such as D'Angelo, Willie Nelson, Rhiannon Giddens, and Josh Homme. Lanois wrote the song "Cruel World" especially for Nelson. When a hurricane prevented Nelson from recording the song, the team sent the track to Homme in the hopes that he could record it in time for the game's release; Homme recorded his vocals in an Australian studio while on tour. Nelson was ultimately able to record the song in time, but the team included both versions in the game. Pavlovich felt that the diversity of the game's landscapes allowed for more diverse sounds, engaging saxophone player Colin Stetson, experimental band Senyawa, and musician Arca to work on the score. While Pavlovich felt that Arca's work was "too angular or sharp or modern sounding", he found techniques to subtly add it to the game to separate it from the Spaghetti Western sounds.

Release

Rockstar Games first teased Red Dead Redemption 2 on October 16–17, 2016, releasing two teaser images in the color and theme of Red Dead Redemption to its website and social media platforms. The teaser images led to considerable attention and raised the stock price of Rockstar's parent company Take-Two Interactive by nearly six percent. The game was officially announced on October 18, 2016. On the day of its announcement for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, some fans started petitioning Rockstar for the game to be made available on Windows as well. Originally due for release in the second half of 2017, the game was delayed twice: first to Q1/Q2 2018, and later to October 26, 2018. According to Rockstar, the game required extra development time for "polish". In October 2019, Rockstar announced that the game would release for Windows on November 5, 2019, and would also be a launch title for Stadia when the service launched in November 2019. The Windows version has visual and technical improvements. It featured new bounties, weapons and hideouts, which were released on PlayStation 4 in December 2019 and Xbox One in January 2020. Google reportedly paid tens of millions of dollars for the game to be ported to Stadia.

Promotion

The game's debut trailer was released on October 20, 2016, depicting the open world environment, and the second and third trailers—released on September 28, 2017, and May 2, 2018, respectively—introduced the game's characters and story. A trailer released on August 9 features the first gameplay footage, demonstrating the shooting and horse mechanics, and the ability to maintain the player's gang and camps. A second gameplay trailer, released on October 1, 2018, demonstrated the in-game heists and Dead Eye targeting system. The final pre-launch trailer was released on October 18, 2018, intended to be a television advertisement. Houser noted that the team often edits several hundred versions of the trailer, based on suggestions from other teams. A trailer for the Windows version was released on October 17, 2019, demonstrating the updated 4K resolution gameplay at 60 frames per second.

To spur pre-order sales, Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide special edition versions of the game. The "Special Edition" includes exclusive single-player content, while the "Ultimate Edition" features additional content for Red Dead Online. The "Collector's Box" is a collection of physical merchandise relating to the game. Players could earn the stone hatchet in the game by acquiring it through a mission in Grand Theft Auto Online. Rockstar updated the official Red Dead Redemption 2 website in the months prior to release to show a preview of activities and locales within the open world, and an examination of the stories of the Van der Linde gang members. Merchandise was also released for the game prior to the release, including clothing matching the in-game characters, and some with the game's logo. A companion app, released alongside the game for Android and iOS devices, acts as a second screen wherein the player can view in-game items such as catalogs, journals, and a real-time mini-map.

References

Der Kuban-Kosakenchor (Russisch: Кубанский Казачий Хор, Ukrainisch: Кубанський козачий хор)(Offizieller Name: Staatlicher Akademischer Orden der Völkerfreundschaft) ist eines der bekanntesten Kosaken-Folklore-Chore und mit seiner Gründung im Jahr 1811 in der nordkaukasischen Region Kuban außerdem der älteste Chor in Russland.

Sein Repertoire umfasst sowohl russische als auch ukrainische Volkslieder

und seine Darbietungen spiegeln die Lieder, Tänze und Folklore des Kuban-Kosakenheers wider.

Der Kuban-Kosaken-Chor und des Heiligen rechtsgläubigen Großherzogs Dimitri Donskoi Kuban-Kosaken-Chor 1. Grades) ist eine Chorgesangsgruppe, die 1811 gegründet wurde[1][2][3]. Die einzige Berufsgruppe der Volkskunst in Russland, die seit Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts eine kontinuierliche Sukzessionsgeschichte hat. Das Repertoire umfasst Kuban-Kosaken, russische und ukrainische Volkslieder sowie Lieder, die auf Versen russischer und ukrainischer Dichter basieren, herausgegeben von Viktor Sachartschenko, dem künstlerischen Leiter der Gruppe.

Kuban-Kosakenchor im Gnessin-Institut Moskau im Jahr 2013

Photo vom 100. Jubiläum im Jahr 1911

Kuban-Kosakenchor im Gnessin-Institut Moskau im Jahr 2013

Zwei Mitglieder des Kuban-Kosakenchors

Geschichte

Anfänge

Nach Darstellung des Kuban-Kosakenchors wurde am 14. Oktober 1811 ein Militärchor des Schwarzen Meeres gegründet. Die Gründer dieses Chores waren Erzpriester Kiril Wassiljewitsch Rossinsky und Regent Grigori Grechinsky

Laut Aussage des Chors wurde

Der moderne Kuban-Kosakenchor legt das Datum seiner Gründung auf den 14. Oktober 1811 fest, als sein Vorgänger, der Black Sea Host Singing Chorus (Черноморский Войсковый певческий хор), gegründet wurde. . In den nächsten hundert Jahren sang der Chor nicht nur die russisch-orthodoxe Liturgie auf Kirchenslawisch, sondern gab auch regelmäßig öffentliche Konzerte in der gesamten Kuban-Gebiet. Diese Konzerte würden neben geistlichen Werken auch klassische Werke sowie Volkslieder beinhalten.

Der 14. Oktober 1811 gilt als Beginn des kreativen Weges des Kollektivs, als der Black Sea Military Choir gegründet wurde. Kirill Rossinsky, geistlicher Erzieher des Kuban, und Regent Kirill Wassiljewitsch Rosinsky standen an seinen Ursprüngen. Ein halbes Jahrhundert später wurde der Black Sea Military Singing Choir in Kuban Military Singing Choir umbenannt. Von diesem Moment an begann das Kollektiv nicht nur an Gottesdiensten teilzunehmen, sondern auch weltliche Konzerte zu geben und dabei geistliche Volkslieder und Werke der klassischen Musik aufzuführen.

Sowjetunion

Im Sommer 1921 wurde das Kosakenheer im Rahmen der Entkosakisierung von Behörden der Bolschewiki aufgelöst und erst 1936 wiederbelebt. Der Chor wurde dann von Grigory Kontsevich und Yakov Taranko geleitet, formell Regenten des alten Kuban-Chorus.↵ Ein Jahr später während der Stalinschen Säuberungen wurde Kontsevich verhaftet und dann hingerichtet. Der Chor wuchs jedoch weiter und wurde 1939 mit der Hinzufügung einer Tanzgruppe in Ensemble des Kuban-Kosakentanzes (Ансамбль песни и пляски кубанских казаков) umbenannt. Die Professionalisierung dieses und anderer solcher „Volksensembles“ unter Josef Stalins Diktatur war so groß, dass die Gruppe tatsächlich aus professionellen Musikern und Tänzern bestand, Absolventen sowjetischer Musik- und Tanzschulen und nicht unbedingt kosakischer Abstammung. Während des Zweiten Weltkriegs bereiste die Gruppe mehrere Fronten und trat vor Soldaten der Roten Armee und insbesondere vor den Kuban-Kosaken-Regimentern auf, die in den Reihen dienten.

Von 1921 bis 1935 wurde seine Arbeit eingestellt, und 1936 wurde das Team unter seinem modernen Namen[4] und unter der Leitung von Grigori Mitrofanowitsch Kontsewitsch (künstlerischer Leiter) und Jakow Michejewitsch Taranenko (Regent) neu gegründet.

1961 wurde das Ensemble auf Initiative von Nikita Chruschtschow wieder aufgelöst. In diesem Jahr wurden viele ähnliche Folkloregruppen in der Sowjetunion aufgelöst.

1968 wurde das Ensemble unter der Leitung von Sergey Chernobay als Teil der Staatlichen Russischen Volkschöre wieder neu gegründet. Drei Jahre später debütierte der neu gegründete Chor beim Bulgarischen Internationalen Folklorefestival, wo er den ersten von vielen Titeln erhielt, die er bei zahlreichen Festivals und Wettbewerben erhalten würde.

1969 wurde Ilya Antonovich Petrusenko Chefchorleiter des Staatlichen Kuban-Kosakenchors, er leitet auch die Gesangsgruppen Kolos und Niva. Unter seiner Leitung wurden die Ensembles wiederholt Preisträger der Allunions- und Allrussischen Festivals der Volkschorkreativität, sie gingen auch mit Konzerten ins Ausland auf Tournee.[5]

1971 wurde der Kuban-Kosakenchor Schüler des internationalen Folklorefestivals in Bulgarien, das den Beginn zahlreicher Ehrentitel markierte, die später bei verschiedenen internationalen und gesamtrussischen Festivals und Wettbewerben gewonnen wurden.

1974 übernahm Viktor Gavrilovich Zakharchenko das Amt des künstlerischen Leiters. Bis heute leitet er den Chor. Zakharchenko war ein Einheimischer, der vom Siberian Chorus, den er zuvor geleitet hatte, nach Kuban zurückversetzt wurde. Aufgrund seiner Bemühungen wurde der Chor 1975 Preisträger des First All Russian Screening-Wettbewerbs der staatlichen Volkschöre in Moskau und erneut 1984.

Künstlerischer Leiter der Gruppe war 1974 der Komponist Viktor Gavrilovich Zakharchenko, der das Konzept einer kulturellen Institution entwickelte und umsetzte, die sich systematisch mit der Wiederbelebung der traditionellen Volkskultur befasst. Gegenwärtig arbeiten 384 Personen in der wissenschaftlichen und kreativen Kulturinstitution der Region Krasnodar „Kuban-Kosakenchor“, darunter 133 – Künstler des Kuban-Kosakenchors.

Neben der aktiven Tournee- und Konzerttätigkeit führt der Kuban-Kosaken-Chor systematische Arbeiten zur Aufnahme, wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung und Bühnenentwicklung der traditionellen Gesangs- und Tanzfolklore der Kuban-Kosaken durch. 1985 schlug Viktor Zakharchenko beim Berichtskonzert des Kindermusikchorstudios vor, nachdem er die Aufführung des Kreativteams unter der Leitung von Natalia Bezuglova gehört hatte, die Gründung eines Kinderkreativteams beim Kuban-Kosakenchor - einem Satelliten des Kuban-Kosakenchors . So gab es ein sekundäres Internat für Volkskunst für begabte Kinder, das nach V. G. Zakharchenko benannt war.

Im Oktober 1988 wurde der Chor im Auftrag des Präsidium des Obersten Sowjets erhielt den Orden der Völkerfreundschaft und wurde 1990 Preisträger des ukrainischen Staatspreises Taras Schewtschenko in der Ukraine. Seine höchste Auszeichnung erhielt der Chor 1993 mit der Verleihung des Titels „Akademisch“.

Nach Auflösung der UDSSR

In den Jahren nach der UdSSR hat der Chor seine Energie in die Sammlung und Wiederbelebung der kosakischen Traditionen gelenkt und den Stolz auf den russischen Patriotismus und die lokalen Bräuche demonstriert. Im August 1995 erlaubte Patriarch Alexius II. der Hostie erneut, die Kirchenliturgie zu singen, und ab Oktober 1996 wurde der Chor per Dekret des Gouverneurs der Region Krasnodar, Aleksandr Tkachyov, als direkter Nachfolger des alten Hostienchors von 1811 anerkannt.

Trotz seiner turbulenten Vergangenheit hat sich der Chor zu einem der führenden Konzertensembles Russlands entwickelt. Es gab Auftritte in Japan, Frankreich, Italien, Spanien, Portugal, Deutschland, Norwegen, China, Vietnam, Polen, Tschechien, Bulgarien, Serbien und Australien.

Der Chor wurde am 14. Oktober 1811 als „Black Sea Military Singing Choir“ gegründet. An seinen Ursprüngen standen der geistliche Erzieher des Kuban, Erzpriester der Schwarzmeer-Kosakenarmee Kirill Rosinsky und Regent Gregory Grechinsky. 1861 wurde der Chor in Kuban Military Singing Choir umbenannt, der seitdem damit begann, weltliche Konzerte in der Gegend zu geben und dabei spirituelle, klassische Werke und Volkslieder aufführte. Der Kuban-Militärchor, der ein bekannter professioneller Träger des männlichen Kirchengesangs war, blieb lange Zeit die einzige kreative Gruppe, die Proben der Kosaken-Folklore, hauptsächlich der Ukraine, aufführte. Aufgrund der Ereignisse des Bürgerkriegs und der Errichtung der Sowjetmacht erlosch der Chor 1920.

Als die Behörden 1936 gezwungen waren, die Kosaken teilweise wiederzubeleben, wurde der Chor namens Kuban-Kosaken kurzzeitig (vor dem Krieg) wieder aufgenommen und 1937 in Lied- und Tanzensemble der Kuban-Kosaken umbenannt. Er durfte nur Werke sowjetischer Komponisten singen, die von der ideologischen Zensur genehmigt wurden. Später hörte er wieder für sieben Jahre auf zu arbeiten. Unter der künstlerischen Leitung von Serhiy Chornobay, der versuchte, dem Chor das vergangene „Kosakengesicht“ zurückzugeben, machten die Behörden Ende der 1960er Jahre deutlich, wie irrelevant die Wiederbelebung der Kosaken durch Gesangspraxis war. Am 14. Oktober 1974 wurde Viktor Gavrilovich Zakharchenko (geb. 1938), ein gebürtiger Art. Onkel. Bedeutend für das Ensemble war das Jahr 1990, als auf seiner Grundlage das Zentrum für Volkskultur Kuban gegründet wurde, dessen Tätigkeit nicht nur mit dem Chor, sondern auch mit der Kinderschule für Volkskunst, der Fakultät für traditionelle Kultur der Staatlichen Universität Krasnodar verbunden war of Culture and Arts.", Der Wohltätigkeitsfonds "Quellen", sowie mit Abteilungen: Forschung, Redaktion und Veröffentlichung, Konzert und Tournee, Ikonenmalerei usw. Im Jahr 2000 erhielt das Zentrum einen neuen Namen: National State Scientific and Creative Institution „Kuban Cossack Choir“.[1]

Centre of Cossack Folklore

1990 wurde auf der Grundlage des Kuban-Kosakenchors ein Zentrum der Volkskultur von Kuban gegründet. Seine Aufgabe ist es, kulturelle Traditionen der Kuban-Kosaken zu sammeln, zu studieren und wiederzubeleben. Das Zentrum hat Kinder- und Jugendchöre und Folk-Instrumenten-Ensembles. Es sammelt auch traditionelle Kleidung und Relikte aus der Vergangenheit des Dorflebens.

Programm

Kosakengesänge und -tänze, meist in russischer, einige wenige in ukrainischer Sprache, sind fester Bestandteil des Programms. Außerdem verwandelt der Chor Gedichte in Lieder, wie die von Alexander Puschkin und Taras Schewtschenko. Es führt auch berühmte Nicht-Kosaken-Lieder wie Katjuscha auf.

Repertoire

Das Repertoire des Kuban-Kosaken-Chores enthält Lieder aus verschiedenen Epochen. Sie zeigen die Fakten der militärischen und kulturellen Entwicklung des Kuban, die Biographie der Kuban-Kosakenarmee, die weltliche und spirituelle Kultur von Jekaterinodar. Diese Lieder spiegelten sowohl die tragischen Ereignisse des Bürgerkriegs, die Verfolgung der Kosaken und Repressionen der 30er Jahre des letzten Jahrhunderts als auch die sowjetische Ästhetik des „großen Stils“ in der nationalen Kunst wider. Der Chor führt in seinen Liedern und vokal-choreografischen Kompositionen immer mehr Generationen von Zuschauern sowohl in das Schicksal einzelner Personen, den Alltag der Musikkultur des Kuban, als auch in das historische Heldentum, das große Drama der Kosaken insgesamt, ein. Der Kuban-Kosaken-Chor ist gewissermaßen ein historisches Denkmal, das die Ereignisse zweier Jahrhunderte Geschichte in Form von Musik- und Gesangskultur einfängt.

Auszeichnungen und Ehrungen

• 1975, 1984: zweimaliger Gewinner des Gesamtrussischen Wettbewerbs der Staatlichen Russischen Volkschöre in Moskau
• 1988: Orden des Heiligen Großfürsten Dmitri Donskoi für „einen großen Beitrag zur Stärkung der Freundschaft und brüderlichen Zusammenarbeit zwischen den sozialistischen Nationen und Völkern der UdSSR“
• 1990: Taras-Schewtschenko-Preis
• 1993: Verleihung des Ehrentitels „Akademischer Chor" (Staatlicher Akademischer Orden der Völkerfreundschaft des Kuban-Kosaken-Chores)
• 2011: Orden des Heiligen Großfürsten Dmitri Donskoi, 1. Klasse (Auszeichnung durch die Russisch-Orthodoxe Kirche)
• 2011: Dankbarkeit des Präsidenten der Russischen Föderation (10. November 2011) - für den großen Beitrag zur Entwicklung der nationalen Kultur und den erzielten kreativen Erfolg[6];
• 2011: Anlässlich des 200-jährigen Jubiläums wurde der Asteroid 243204 nach Chor Kubanhoria genannt.
• 2014: Verleihung des Ehrentitels "Verdiente Künstlergruppe der Pridnestrowischen Moldauische Republik"[7].

Reportagen

• The Kuban Cossack Choir. Regie: Mariya Smelkova. Veröffentlichung: 2010. Länge: 34 min.

Literatur

• Olson, Laura J. Performing Russia: Folk revival and Russian identity. New York & London, RoutledgeCurzon, 2004. ISBN 0-415-32614-1

Weblinks

• 

  Commons: LennBr/Übersetzungszimmer – Album mit Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
• Offizielle Website (kkx.ru) (russisch)

Einzelnachweise

Der ukrainische Infrastrukturminister Alexander Kubrakow hat die Schäden am Verkehrssystem im Land durch den russischen Einmarsch auf bisher mehr als zehn Milliarden US-Dollar geschätzt.

Putin: Keine Wehrpflichtigen und Reservisten in Ukraine im Einsatz.

Starbucks, IBM stoppt Geschäft in Russland. USA stoppt ölimporte aus Russland

Der Krieg Russlands treibt den Goldpreis immer weiter nach oben. Der Preis für eine Feinunze (31,1 Gramm) stieg am Dienstag in der Spitze bis auf 2021 US-Dollar. Gold nähert sich damit immer mehr seinem Rekordhoch vom August 2020 an. Damals war der Goldpreis bis auf 2075 Dollar gestiegen. Zuletzt fiel der Goldpreis ein wenig zurück und wurde mit 2005 Dollar gehandelt.

EU will russische Gasimporte drastisch senken Die EU-Kommission hat einen Plan mit Maßnahmen vorgelegt, um russische Gasimporte bis Ende des Jahres um zwei Drittel im Vergleich zum Vorjahr zu reduzieren.

Moral unter russischen Soldaten: Chaos, Beschimpfungen, weinende Soldaten

Basisdaten
Titel:	Verordnung zum Schutz des Namens Glashütte
Kurztitel:	Glashüttenverordnung
Abkürzung:	GlashütteV
Art:	Bundesrechtsverordnung
Geltungsbereich:	Bundesrepublik Deutschland
Erlassen aufgrund von:	§ 137 Markengesetz
Rechtsmaterie:	Markenrecht
Erlassen am:	12. Februar 2022 (BGBl. I S. 3833)
Inkrafttreten am:
Bitte den Hinweis zur geltenden Gesetzesfassung beachten.

Die Glashüttenverordnung ist eine deutsche Rechtsverordnung, die den Namen Glashütte als Herkunftsangabe für Uhren aus der Stadt Glashütte* schützt.

Diese Bezeichnung darf demgemäß im geschäftlichen Verkehr nur für Uhren verwendet werden, die in allen wesentlichen Herstellungsstufen innerhalb des Glashütten-Industriegebiets bearbeitet und fertiggestellt worden sind.

Die Glashüttenverordnung besagt, dass die Herkunftsangabe Glashütte für Uhren nur genutzt werden darf, wenn in allen wesentlichen Herstellungsstufen zusammen mehr als fünfzig Prozent der Wertschöpfung in Glashütte und der mit diesem Standort eng verbundenen Regionen erzielt wurden, wobei bestimmte Schritte in Glashütte erfolgen müssen.

*Neben der Stadt Glashütte umfasst das Herkunftsgebiet zwei Ortsteile der Stadt Altenberg und für einige wenige Tätigkeiten auch Dresden.

Weblinks

• Text der Solingenverordnung

Einzelnachweise

Bitte den Hinweis zu Rechtsthemen beachten!

Kategorie:Rechtsquelle (Deutschland) Kategorie:Rechtsquelle (21. Jahrhundert) Kategorie:Markenrecht (Deutschland) Kategorie:Glashütte (Sachsen)

Dahomey Amazonen (Bildaufnahmedatum um 1890)

Die Dahomey Amazonen (Eigenbezeichnung in Fon: "Mino" bzw. "Minon" ("Unsere Mütter") und ahosi (Frauen des Königs) waren ein aus Kriegerinnen bestehendes Regiment des Königreichs Dahomey. Ihren Namen verdankten die Soldatinnen Beobachtern und Historikern aus der Westlichen Welt, die sie mit Amazonen assoziierten.

Diese Entstehung des rein weiblichen Militärverbands war das Ergebnis der männlichen Bevölkerung von Dahomey, die in häufigen Kriegen mit französisch-westafrikanischen Nachbarstaaten hohe Verluste erlitten hatte, sowie darauf, dass Dahomey gezwungen war, jedes Jahr männliche Sklaven an das Königreich Oyo abzugeben. Der Mangel an Männern führte dazu, dass die Könige von Dahomey Frauen in die Armee aufnahmen.

Laut Aufzeichnungen bestand die Armee Zeitweise aus bis zu 8.000 Frauen.

Das Regiment hatte bis 1892 bestand, als jene Frauen (etwa 4.000) im Zweiten französisch-dahomeischen Krieg in den Kampf zogen. Der Krieg endete damit, dass Dahomey verlor und als Protektorat der dritten Französischen Republik unterstellt wurde.

Die Mino stießen weit über die Landesgrenzen hinaus auf Interesse, vor allem in Europa. Gegen Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts wurden dort Völkerschauen populär, und Gruppen von Afrikanern, die nicht unbedingt aus Dahomey stammten, wurden gegen Gebühr als „Amazonen aus Dahomey“ vorgeführt.

Die Frauenarmee hat auch Schriftsteller und Filmemacher des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts inspiriert. So hat die UNESCO die „Frauensoldaten aus Dahomey“ in einem Bildungsprojekt zur afrikanischen Geschichte gewürdigt.

Bezeichnungen

-Leuten gegründet, [2] [3] und in der Fon-Sprache wurden Kriegerinnen sowohl "ahosi" (die Frauen des Königs) als auch "mino" (unsere Mütter) genannt, bevor die Europäer anfingen, sie "Amazonen" zu nennen ". [4] Die erste bekannte Verwendung dieses Begriffs für die weibliche Armee stammt aus dem Jahr 1793 in dem Buch The History of Dahomey des britischen Sklavenhändlers Archibald Dalzel (1740–1811).[5] Das Einzige, was die mythischen Amazonen der Antike und die echten Frauen von Dahomey gemeinsam hatten, war, dass sie Kriegerinnen waren, aber der Begriff „Amazonen“ blieb. Es wurde seit Dalzels Zeit in verschiedenen Kontexten verwendet, von Sachbüchern [a] bis zur Populärkultur [b]. Ab dem 20. Jahrhundert verwenden einige Historiker wieder den Begriff "mino". Professor Leonard Wantchekon (1956–), der selbst in Benin geboren wurde und die Amazonen und ihre Nachkommen erforscht, hält das für ein irreführendes Wort und behauptet, es bedeute nicht „unsere Mütter“, sondern „Hexe“.[6] Die Geschichte der Amazonen wird hauptsächlich in englischen und französischen Büchern und Artikeln behandelt. Diese werden nicht vom Militär geschrieben, und im Falle der von den Amazonen gebildeten oder ihnen angehörenden Militäreinheiten werden in der Literatur Begriffe wie Regiment, Korps, Division, Bataillon, Kompanie und Truppe verwendet, ohne sich auf ein bestimmtes zu beziehen Zahl der Soldaten oder Truppen [7]

Herkunft und Namensbedeutung

Dahomey wurde um 1625 von den Fon gegründet.

König Houegbadja (der als dritter König von Dahomey von 1645 bis 1685 regierte), hat nach überlieferten Quellen ein Korps von Elefantenjägern namens Gbeto gegründet.

Houegbadjas Tochter, Königin Hangbe (regierte von 1708 bis 1711) richtete eine weibliche Leibwache ein. Der Überlieferung nach setzte ihr Bruder und Nachfolger König Agaja sie 1727 bei Dahomeys Sieg über das benachbarte Königreich Savi erfolgreich ein die männliche Armee von Dahomey. Andere Quellen bestreiten die Behauptung, dass König Agajas ältere Schwester Königin Hangbe die Herrscherin war, um die Einheiten zu gründen, einige gehen sogar so weit zu hinterfragen, ob Königin Hangbe tatsächlich existierte oder nicht.

Seit der Zeit von König Ghezo (regierend von 1818 bis 1858) wurde Dahomey zunehmend militaristisch. Ghezo legte großen Wert auf die Armee, erhöhte ihr Budget und formalisierte ihre Struktur von zeremoniell zu einem ernsthaften Militär. Während die europäischen Erzählungen die Soldatinnen als "Amazonen" bezeichnen, nannten sie sich selbst ahosi (Königsfrauen) oder Mino (unsere Mütter).

Im Jahr 1864 dokumentierte Kapitän Richard Francis Burton über zweitausend Stammesfrauen, die als Krieger dienten, und berichtete, dass zwei Drittel von ihnen Jungfrauen mit Leidenschaft und Liebe zueinander waren. Er erwähnte auch „ein Korps von Prostituierten“, das für den Gebrauch der Amazonen gehalten wurde. Einige Jahre zuvor, im Jahr 1850, schrieb der englische Marineoffizier Frederick Forbes seine eigenen Beobachtungen nieder: „Die Amazonen sollen nicht heiraten, und nach eigener Aussage haben sie ihr Geschlecht geändert. ‚Wir sind Männer‘, sagen sie, ‚keine Frauen‘. Alle kleiden sich gleich, ernähren sich gleich, und Männer und Frauen eifern einander nach: Was die Männer tun, werden die Amazonen bestrebt sein, zu übertreffen.“ Ein Amazonas-Häuptling behauptete ihre Geschlechtsumwandlung wie folgt: „Wie der Schmied eine Eisenstange nimmt und durch Feuer seine Mode ändert, so haben wir unsere Natur geändert. Wir sind keine Frauen mehr, wir sind Männer.“ Die amazonischen Kriegerinnen sicherten ab dem 17. Jahrhundert fast drei Jahrhunderte lang einer ganzen Reihe von Dahomey-Königen den Sieg. Auf ihrem Höhepunkt im frühen neunzehnten Jahrhundert zählte die Zahl der Amazonenfrauen bis zu sechstausend und machte fast ein Drittel der Dahomey-Armee aus.

Rekrutierung

Seh-Dong-Hong-Beh, eine Anführerin der Amazonen, Zeichnung von ca. 1851 von Frederick Edwyn Forbes (Schiffskommandant und Autor der britischen Royal Navy)

Ghezo recruited both men and women soldiers from foreign captives, though women soldiers were also recruited from free Dahomean women, some enrolled as young as 8 years old. Other accounts indicate that the Mino were recruited from among the ahosi ("king's wives") of which there were often hundreds. Some women in Fon society became soldiers voluntarily, while others were involuntarily enrolled if their husbands or fathers complained to the king about their behaviour.

Membership among the Mino was supposed to hone any aggressive character traits for the purpose of war. During their membership they were not allowed to have children or be part of married life (though they were legally married to the king). Many of them were virgins. The regiment had a semi-sacred status, which was intertwined with the Fon belief in Vodun.

The Mino trained with intense physical exercise. They learnt survival skills and indifference to pain and death, storming acacia-thorn defenses in military exercises and executing prisoners. Discipline was emphasised.

Serving in the Mino offered women the opportunity to "rise to positions of command and influence" in an environment structured for individual empowerment. The Mino were also wealthy and held high status.

Politischer Einfluss

The Mino took a prominent role in the Grand Council, debating the policy of the kingdom. From the 1840s to 1870s (when the opposing party collapsed), they generally supported peace with Abeokuta and stronger commercial relations with England, favouring the trade in palm oil above that in slaves; this set them at odds with their male military colleagues.

Apart from the council, the Annual Customs of Dahomey included a parade and reviewing of the troops, and the troops swearing of an oath to the king. The celebrations on the 27th day of the Annual Customs consisted of a mock battle in which the Amazons attacked a "fort" and "captured" the slaves within, a custom recorded by the priest Francesco Borghero in his diaries.

Kampf und Stammestruktur

The women soldiers were rigorously trained and given uniforms. By the mid-19th century, they numbered between 1,000 and 6,000 women, about a third of the entire Dahomey army, according to reports written by visitors. These documented reports also indicated that the women soldiers suffered several defeats.

The women soldiers were said to be structured in parallel with the army as a whole, with a center wing (the king's bodyguards) flanked on both sides, each under separate commanders. Some accounts note that each male soldier had a female warrior counterpart. In an mid-19th century account by an English observer, it was documented that the women that had three stripes of whitewash around each leg, were honored with marks of distinction.

The women's army consisted of a number of regiments: huntresses, riflewomen, reapers, archers and gunners. Each regiment had different uniforms, weapons and commanders.

In the latter period, the Dahomean female warriors were armed with Winchester rifles, clubs and knives. Units were under female command. An 1851 published translation of a war chant of the women claims the warriors would chant, "a[s] the blacksmith takes an iron bar and by fire changes its fashion so have we changed our nature. We are no longer women, we are men."

Konflikt mit benachbarten Königreichen

The Dahomey kingdom was often at war with its neighbors, and captives were needed for the slave trade. The Dahomey women soldiers fought in slave raids, as referenced in the Zora Neale Hurston non-fiction work Barracoon, and in the unsuccessful wars against Abeokuta.Vorlage:Citation needed

Konflikt mit Frankreich

Erster französisch-dahomeischer Krieg

European encroachment into West Africa gained pace during the latter half of the 19th century, and in 1890 King Béhanzin started fighting French forces in the course of the First Franco-Dahomean War. European observers noted that the women "handled admirably" in hand-to-hand combat, but fired their flintlocks from the hip rather than firing from the shoulder.Vorlage:Sfn The Amazons participated in one major battle: Cotonou, where thousands of Dahomey (including many Amazons) charged the French lines and engaged the defenders in hand-to-hand combat. Despite the compliments given to them by the Europeans, the Amazons were decisively crushed, with several hundred Dahomey troops being gunned down while reportedly 129 Dahomey were killed in melee combat within the French lines.Vorlage:Sfn

Zweiter französisch-dahomeischer Krieg

By the end of the Second Franco-Dahomean War, special units of the Amazons were being assigned specifically to target French officers.Vorlage:Sfn After several battles, the French prevailed in the Second Franco-Dahomean War and put an end to the independent Dahomean kingdom. French soldiers, particularly of the French Foreign Legion, were impressed by the boldness of the Amazons and later wrote about their "incredible courage and audacity" in combat. Against a military unit with decidedly superior weaponry and a longer bayonet, however, the Dahomey Amazons could not prevail.Vorlage:Sfn During a battle with French soldiers at Adegon on 6 October during the second war, the bulk of the Amazon corps were wiped out in a matter of hours in hand-to-hand combat after the French engaged them with a bayonet charge.Vorlage:Citation needed

Gruppenbild der sogenannten Amazonen von Dahomey mit einzelnen Kriegern während ihres Aufenthalts in Paris um 1891.

Auflösung und Vermächtnis

Veteraninnen beim Jahrestreffen in Abomey im Jahr 1908

The troops were disbanded when the kingdom became a French protectorate.Vorlage:Sfn Oral tradition states that some surviving amazons secretly remained in Abomey afterwards, where they quietly assassinated a number of French officers. Other stories say the women pledged their services in protection of Agoli-Agbo, the brother of Béhanzin, disguising themselves as his wives in order to guard him.Vorlage:Sfn

Some of the women married and had children, while others remained single. According to a historian who traced the lives of almost two dozen ex-amazons, all the women displayed difficulties adjusting to life as retired warriors, often struggling to find new roles in their communities that gave them a sense of pride comparable to their former lives. Many displayed a tendency to start fights or arguments that frightened their neighbours and relatives.Vorlage:Sfn

Between 1934 and 1942, several British travellers in Abomey recorded encounters with ex-amazons, now old women who spun cotton or idled around courtyards.Vorlage:Sfn An unknown number of women are said to have trained with the members of the Dahomey Amazons after they were disbanded, in effect continuing the tradition. They never saw combat. Around 2019, Lupita Nyong'o interviewed one of these who was still alive.

Nawi, die letzte Dahomey-Amazonas

The last survivor of the Dahomey Amazons is thought to have been a woman named Nawi. In a 1978 interview in the village of Kinta, a Beninese historian met Nawi, who claimed to have fought the French in 1892.Vorlage:Sfn Nawi died in November 1979, aged well over 100.Vorlage:Sfn

Actress Thuso Mbedu portrays Nawi in the American historical epic film The Woman King. She stars alongside Viola Davis, Lashana Lynch, and John Boyega. The film is scheduled to be released on September 16, 2022.

UNESCO-Comic-Roman

In 2015, UNESCO published the comic novel The women soldiers of Dahomey as part of their UNESCO Series on Women in African History. As an artistic and visual interpretation intended for private or public use in classrooms, it tells the story of the Amazons in connection with European colonial rule in Africa and ends with their legacy for the present-day Republic of Benin: "In addition to the imprint that they have left on the collective memory, the women soldiers bequeathed to the Republic of Benin dances that are performed to this day in Abomey, songs and legends. There are many women soldiers in Benin’s armed forces today. They keep the memory of the women soldiers of the Kingdom of Dahomey alive."

Künstlerische Rezeption

Im vom Werner Herzog produzierten und 1978 veröffentlichten Film Cobra Verde sind Dahomey Amazonen dargestellt.

Ghezos Amazonen spielen eine Rolle in dem von George MacDonald Fraser geschriebenen Roman Flash for Freedom!.

Layon Grays Bühnenstück The Dahomey Warriors thematisiert die Kriegerinnen ebenfalls.

Die Dora Milaje, Krieger und Leibwächter der Marvel Comics-Figur Black Panther, sind teilweise von den Amazonen von Dahomey inspiriert.

In Age of Empires II: The African Kingdoms und Age of Empires III: The African Royals gibt es eine weibliche Einheit namens Gbeto.

In der Episode 7 (Name: I am) der ersten Staffel der Fernsehserie Lovecraft Country wird die Figur Hippolyta in eine Welt transportiert, in der sie zu einer Dahomey-Kriegerin wird.

"The Last Amazon of Dahomey" ist ein Theaterstück aus dem mit dem Booker Prize ausgezeichneten Roman „Girl, Woman, Other“ von Bernardine Evaristo.

Völkerschau-Werbung zur „Neger-Karawane“ mit einem Hinweis auf „Dahomey Amazonen“ (Norwegen um etwa 1890)

Bibliografie

• Stanley B. Alpern: Amazons of Black Sparta: The Women Warriors of Dahomey. 1st Auflage. New York University Press, New York, U.S. 1998, ISBN 978-0-8147-0678-7 (archive.org). 
• Bernard, A. S. 1998. Amazons of Black Sparta. London, C Hurst & Co. Bourgeon, F. 1979 – 1984.
• Tim Clodfelter: Play tells story of West African warrior women. In: Winston-Salem Journal. 5. August 2017, abgerufen am 15. August 2018. 
• Mike Dash: Dahomey's Women Warriors. In: Smithsonian.com. 23. September 2011, abgerufen am 14. August 2018. 
• Historical Museum of Abomey: The Amazons. In: Historical Museum of Abomey. Abgerufen am 14. August 2018. 
• Jazzi Johnson: If You Loved Black Panther's Dora Milaje, Meet the Dahomey Amazons. In: Teen Vogue Magazine. 23. Februar 2018, abgerufen am 14. August 2018. 
• Robin Law: The 'Amazons' of Dahomey. In: Paideuma: Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde. 39. Jahrgang. Frobenius Institute, 1993, S. 245–260 (jstor.org). 
• John C. Yoder: Fly and Elephant parties: Political polarization in Dahomey, 1840–1870. In: The Journal of African History. 15. Jahrgang, Nr. 3. Cambridge University Press, 1974, S. 417–432, doi:10.1017/S0021853700013566. 

Weiterführende Literatur

• Richard Francis Burton, A Mission to Gelele, King of Dahome. London, 1864
• Holmes R. Acts of War: the behavior of men in battle. New York, Free Press, 1985
• Frederick E. Forbes. Dahomey and the Dahomans, Being the Journals of Two Missions to the King of Dahomey and the Residence at his Capital in the Years 1849 and 1850. Kessinger Publishing. 2010 ISBN 978-1163235027
• W. Peukert. Der Atlantische Sklavenhandel von Dahomey, 1740–1797, Wiesbaden, 1978
• Grossman D. On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning To Kill in War and Society. New York, Back Bay Books / Little, Brown and Company, 1995 ISBN 0-316-33011-6 Seite 175
• D’Almeida-Topor, Hélène. Les Amazones, Une armée de femmes dans l’Afrique précoloniale. Paris, Editions Rochevignes, 1984.
• Robert B. Edgerton. Warrior Women: The Amazons of Dahomey and the Nature of War. Boulder: Westview Press, 2000
• Edna G. Bay. Wives of the Leopard: Gender, Culture, and Politics in the Kingdom of Dahomey. Charlottesville, 1998
• Tim Newark and Angus McBride. Women Warlords: An Illustrated Military History of Female Warriors. Blandford Press, 1989 ISBN 0-7137-1965-6

Weblinks

Commons: Amazons of Dahomey – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien

• englischsprachiger Artikel über die Amazonen von Dahomey des Historischen Museums von Abomey

Robin Krasniqi Profikarriere

52 Siege (20 K.-o.-Siege), 6 Niederlagen, 0 Unentschieden
Jahr	Tag	Ort	Gegner	Ergebnis
2005	20. Oktober	Alabama Club, München	Deutschland Sven Haselhuhn	Niederlage nach Punkten
	26. November	Boxfabrik, München	Tschechien Ladislav Martinek
2006	5. Januar	Alabama Club, München	Rumänien Adrian Cerneaga	Sieg / Punktsieg
	(Quelle: BoxRec-Datenbank)

Executive Office of the President of the United States

Federal Protective Service

Geruch der ISS und des Weltraums

[1][2]

Photokatalytische Selbstreinigung [3][4][5]

Eau de Space

Dies wurde durch Timothy Peake damit erklärt, dass sich der im Weltraum vorhandene atomare Sauerstoff mit dem Öffnen der Schleusen der Internationalen Raumstationen mit den Sauerstoff-Molekülen aus der Luft der ISS verbindet und dadurch Ozon erzeugt wird. Als Nebenprodukt würde eine elektrostatische Aufladung stattfinden, die er als einen metallischen Geruch wahrnahm.

Polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe

Kozara-Offensive/Operation Westbosnien

LennBr/Übersetzungszimmer (Bitte nicht löschen)
Karte zur Offensive in der Region Kozara (vom 10. Juni bis 16. Juli 1942)
Datum
Ort	Bosanska Krajina
Ausgang	Sieg der Achsenmächte

Die Kozara-Offensive, von der Achse auch als Operation West-Bosnien bekannt, wurde 1942 auf und um den Berg Kozara im Nordwesten Bosniens ausgetragen. Es war eine wichtige Schlacht der jugoslawischen Partisanen-Widerstandsbewegung im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Es wurde später ein wesentlicher Bestandteil der jugoslawischen Nachkriegsmythologie, die den Mut und das Martyrium von zahlenmäßig unterlegenen und überlegenen Partisanen und Zivilisten feierte.

Bestimmte Quellen identifizieren die Kozara-Offensive fälschlicherweise als Teil der Operation Trio.