Algeria

This article deals with the state in Africa. For other meanings, see Algérien .

الجمهورية الجَزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية (Arabic) ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵢⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴻⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ (Tamazight)
al-Jumhūrīya al-Jazā'irīya ad-Dīmūqrātīya asch-Schaʿbīya (Arabic) Tagduda tazzayrit tamagdayt taɣerfant (Tamazight)
People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
flag seal
Motto : من الشعب وللشعب/ min aš-šaʿb wa-li-š-šaʿb ⴳ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵖⴻⵔ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ G ugdud ɣer ugdud (Arabic and Tamazight 'From the people and for the people')
Official language	Arabic and Tamazight
capital city	Algiers
State and form of government	semi-presidential republic
Head of state	President Abdelmadjid Tebboune
Head of government	Prime Minister Aymen Benabderrahmane
surface	2,381,741 ( 10th ) km²
population	42.973 million ( 34th ) (projection July 2020)
Population density	17.5 inhabitants per km²
Population development	+ 1.8% (estimate for 2020)
gross domestic product Total (nominal) Total ( PPP ) GDP / inh. (nominal) GDP / inh. (KKP)	2019 $ 169.3 billion ( 56th ) $ 509.3 billion ( 42nd ) 3,898 USD ( 122. ) 11,729 USD ( 112. )
Human Development Index	0.748 ( 91st ) (2019)
currency	Algerian Dinar (DZD)
independence	July 5, 1962 (by France )
National anthem	Qassaman
National holiday	November 1st (Revolution Day)
Time zone	UTC + 1
License Plate	Double room
ISO 3166	DZ , DZA, 012
Internet TLD	.dz
Telephone code	+213

Algiers Oran Constantine Annaba Bechar Adrar Tamanrasset Tindouf Illizi Ouargla Ghardaia El Oued Laghouat Tahat MAURITANIA MALI NIGER LIBYA TUNISIA MOROCCO SPAIN MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Algeria ( Arabic الجزائر al-Jazā'ir , DMG al-Ǧazāʾir 'the islands'; Berber ⵍⴻⵣⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ Lezzayer , ⵍⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ Ldzayer and ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer ; officially al-Jumhūrīya al-Jazā'irīya ad-Dīmūqrātīya asch-Schaʿbīya /الجمهورية الجَزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية/ 'Democratic People's Republic of Algeria', in Berber ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵢⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴻⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ Tagduda tazzayrit tamagdayt taɣerfant ) is a state in northwest Africa .

Algeria, as the mean of the Maghreb countries , the area of the largest state of the African continent and the tenth largest country in the world. In terms of inhabitants, Algeria was in eighth place within Africa in 2017 with a good 41 million. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Mauritania , Morocco and the Western Sahara claimed by Morocco to the west, Mali and Niger to the south, and Libya and Tunisia to the east . The country is named after its capital, Algiers ( French Alger ). Other major cities are Oran , Constantine , Annaba and Batna . The country became independent after the end of the Algerian War (1954–1962). With the 1996 constitution, a semi-presidential system of government came into force.

geography

The main part of the population lives in the northern part of Algeria, on the southern coast of the Mediterranean and in the Atlas Mountains . The much larger southern part, called Le Grand Sud in Algeria , is only sparsely populated and is dominated by the desert regions of the Sahara .

The steeply rising Tell Atlas rises behind the narrow, bay-rich edge of the Mediterranean coast . The mountain range, divided by basins, longitudinal and transverse valleys, reaches an altitude of 2308 m east of Algiers in the wildly ravaged Kabylia and the Ouarsenis Mountains rise to 1963 m to the southwest of Algiers . The south side of the Tell Atlas falls to the Schotts highlands at 1000 m to 391 m. There are numerous drainless, marshy salt lakes, the so-called bulkheads . To the south of this up to 150 km wide highland is the Sahara Atlas ; it runs parallel to the coast and the Tell Atlas. Its highest mountain is 2328 m high.

The Algerian Sahara is spreading beyond the striking southern roof of the Atlas Mountains, which drops down to 35 m below sea level at Schott Melghir in the eastern lowlands ; With a good two million square kilometers, it takes up 85% of the country's area. A strip of desert steppe in the north is followed by the extensive, almost vegetation-free sand dune areas of the Eastern Great Erg , the Western Great Erg , the Erg Iguidi and the Erg Chech . The Sahara of Algeria is largely occupied by the stony plateaus such as the Hammada du Draa or the Hammada du Guir in the west and by step landscapes ( Tassili n'Ajjer in the southeast). In the south rises in the Tahat (highest mountain in Algeria) 2908 m high Ahaggar massif, a desert-like high mountain of volcanic origin that is endangered by earthquakes to this day. South of the Tassili n'Ajjer are the large dune areas of the Chad basin .

The Cheliff is to be mentioned as the longest of the otherwise mostly short permanent rivers in the coastal region of the Tell Atlas . Further to the south, the river valleys of Algeria are mostly dry ( wadis ) and sometimes lined with oases ; Heavy rains - even in more distant areas - can suddenly turn a wadi into a torrent. Wadi Igharghar has created one of the longest of these dry valleys .

climate

The Ahaggar Mountains in southern Algeria

Algeria has a Mediterranean climate in the north and an extremely dry desert climate in the south. On the Mediterranean coast and the northern slopes of the Tell Atlas , the mean temperature is 25 ° C in August and 12 ° C in January; the precipitation (average 500 to 1000 mm) falls mainly in winter. In the Schotts highlands there is a humid steppe climate with pronounced seasonal temperature fluctuations (January mean barely above 0 ° C, August mean 30 ° C). The precipitation, mostly in the form of brief downpours, is only 350 mm here. The northern slope of the Sahara Atlas is heavily irrigated; on the south side, however, there is a rapid transition to the hot, dry desert climate of the Sahara with daily temperature fluctuations of up to 20 ° C and more. Temperatures reach over 40 ° C in summer and can drop below 0 ° C in winter. In some areas the long-term average precipitation is only 10 mm. In the summer months, the Scirocco , a dry, dust-laden wind, often blows from the Sahara .

Flora and fauna

Bejaia, coastal city of Kabylia

Algeria today has a forest share of only 2%, around 80% of the country is almost without vegetation. Targeted reforestation measures such as the Barrage vert aim to slow down the spread of the desert . Between 1990 and 2000, the forest population increased by 1.3%. Mediterranean shrubs such as maquis , Aleppo pines , cork oaks and holm oaks as well as (over 1600 m) Atlas cedars grow on the north side of the Tell Atlas, which is sufficiently irrigated ; There are still contiguous forest areas in Kabylia .

In the Schotts highlands, steppes with half- grass and wormwood dominate . The mountain steppe of the Sahara Atlas merges south into the largely vegetation-free desert; Plants (especially date palms) only grow in peripheral zones and areas that are favored by groundwater ( oases ). The Ahaggar Mountains are forestless; in places there is Mediterranean vegetation.

Wild animals include gazelles , desert foxes ( fenneks ), mane sheep , barbary macaques , occasional cheetahs , jerboa , snakes , lizards , scorpions and various species of birds (including large birds of prey). Originally, Berber lions and atlas bears were also native to Algeria. However, the wild stocks are extinct.

In the National Park Tassili n'Ajjer , the world natural and world heritage site of UNESCO , there are still stocks of Mane sheep and dunes gazelles and a few cheetahs.

population

Population development in millions

Population pyramid Algeria 2016.

The population of Algeria grew from 6.1 million in 1926 to 42.2 million in 2018. As a result of the strong population growth, the proportion of people under the age of 15 was 25.4% in 2010. The birth rate in 2016 was 2.7 children per woman.

Almost all Algerians are of Berber origin; only about 40% profess their Berber identity. In the course of Islamization in the 7th and 8th centuries, Algeria experienced extensive Arabization in terms of culture, language and religion. Mostly people who call themselves Arabs (70%) and various Berber tribes (30%), some of which are Arabized, populate Algeria. Since the ethnic groups have increasingly mixed from the 20th century, it is sometimes difficult to assign an Algerian to a certain tribe. More and more have both Arabic and Berber roots. The number of Europeans , who made up 10% of the population under French rule in 1960, fell to around 20,000 after independence. After centuries of Ottoman rule, the number of the population of Ottoman origin known as the Kulughli (with Turkish , Kurdish and partly Armenian roots) is estimated at 600,000 to 2 million.

The population in Algeria is very unevenly distributed. 96% of the inhabitants live in the north on a fifth of the national area. Over half (65% in 2008) - with an upward trend - already live in cities that are primarily located in the coastal area. An estimated 2.3 million Algerians live abroad, including over 1.5 million in France , where they are the main representatives of Islam in France . The main reasons for the high rate of emigration are growing population pressure and a lack of job opportunities. In Algeria in 2017 only 0.6% of the population were foreigners. The country has a very low proportion of migrants.

languages

The official languages ​​of Algeria are Arabic and various Tamazight . French plays an important role as an educational, commercial and lingua franca. Algeria is considered to be the country with the most French speakers outside of France; for political reasons, however, it does not commit to Francophonie . State television stations also broadcast news and documentaries in French; on state radio, one of the three main programs is in French. Tamazight has also had the status of a national language since 2002, and since 2016 it has been the official language in which radio programs and occasional television programs are also broadcast.

The main written languages ​​used are French and Standard Arabic ; Government initiatives have been promoting the use of standard Arabic and the suppression of French since the 1970s. Kabyle is a widespread written language, especially in Greater and Lesser Kabylia , but almost only young people are able to do so, as those over 30 have not yet been literate in Kabyle at school.

Today (as of 2014) the mother tongue of around 70% of the population is an Algerian dialect of Arabic ( Darja ), which differs significantly from standard Arabic, which is predominant in the media, politics, administration and schools. The mother tongue of another 30% of the population is Tamazight. The south of the country is almost exclusively inhabited by Tamascheq - speaking Tuareg (who belong to the Amazigh).

French is understood by almost all Algerians; however, the degree of mastery varies widely. Older people who went to school before the school system was converted from French to Standard Arabic (1976), academically educated people and many residents of Kabylia mostly speak fluent French with almost native language competence. Younger people, on the other hand, often have a poor written command of French and use a Français régional , a mixed language of French and Darja .

A small minority in western Algeria speaks Korandje , the northernmost of the Songhai languages .

Religions

Al-Atik Mosque

Between 98% and 99% of the population profess Islam . A minority, mainly foreigners living in Algeria and converted Algerians, belong to Christianity in Algeria , traditionally of the Catholic Church of Algeria . In the wake of the civil war that broke out in 1992 between the government and the Islamist Salvation Front (FIS), which did not shy away from mass murders of compatriots, some Algerians, v. a. in Kabylia , Protestant Christianity too. Some of the Protestant communities in Kabylia have existed since the 1930s. There is also a small number of residents of the Jewish faith (less than 0.1% of the population today). The Mozabites are an Islamic minority.

Algeria has declared Sunni Islam the state religion . In the second half of the 20th century, Islam gained increasing influence in the daily life of Algerians. Algeria's independence movement was already heavily influenced by Islam, which is why the religious leaders demanded more rights after the victory over France. Citizenship law has been in force on an Islamic basis since 1963; The Koran has been taught in all schools since 1964. Over time, the Sharia was also introduced as the basis of the legal system: Family law has been in force since 1984, which stipulates the discrimination or different treatment of women. A law that came into force on March 28, 2006 makes proselytizing Muslims by other religions subject to heavy penalties.

Social

There is general social insurance for all employees; A retirement pension is paid from the age of 60. There are also disability and survivors' pensions. What is missing is unemployment benefits - a shortcoming that, given the high level of unemployment (2016: 12.4%), has considerable social effects.

education

UIS literacy of the population of Algeria 1985-2015

There is general compulsory schooling for 6 to 15 year olds. This can be followed by three years at a secondary school. The languages ​​of instruction are French and Arabic . The educational and training differences between men and women and between urban and rural areas are still considerable. In Algeria, the median school attendance increased from 3.6 years in 1990 to 7.8 years in 2015. Literacy programs for adults and a higher school enrollment rate have slowly lowered the illiteracy rate in recent decades to 13% for men and 27% for women. The country has twelve universities; the oldest was founded in Algiers in 1879 .

The reform of the Algerian school system with the aim of fundamentally modernizing school teaching has been promoted by the government since 2014. After the years of Arabization of the school system, European foreign languages are ascribed an important role. French is the first foreign language , English the second, German , Spanish or Italian the third foreign language. In practice, the reform suffers from a shortage of skilled workers (migration of teachers abroad, stagnating student numbers / around 1.3 million in the 2014/15 academic year), the lack of modern foreign language didactics and frequent strikes by teaching staff. Only some of the Algerian teachers were trained at universities. In the 2015 PISA ranking , Algerian students achieved 71st place in mathematics, 71st place in science and 69th place in reading comprehension; the situation in a total of 72 states was examined in the study.

Bless you

The standard of the healthcare system is still inadequate despite improvements. Despite the general free medical care of the population, a considerable urban-rural divide can be observed. Life expectancy in 2016 was 76.8 years; there has been a considerable increase here since the end of the colonial era. In 2006, the government's per capita health expenditure was US $ 146 (purchasing power parity). The HIV infection rate is low.

Development of life expectancy
Period	Life expectancy in years	Period	Life expectancy in years
1950-1955	42.9	1985-1990	65.9
1955-1960	45.0	1990-1995	67.2
1960-1965	47.3	1995-2000	69.1
1965-1970	49.5	2000-2005	71.5
1970-1975	51.5	2005-2010	73.9
1975-1980	54.9	2010-2015	75.3
1980-1985	61.6

Source: UN

story

→ Main article : History of Algeria

Berbers, Phoenicians, Vandals and Eastern Romans

Ruins of the Arch of Trajan from Thamugadi (Timgad)

Originally the area of ​​today's Algeria was inhabited by Berber tribes, in the east of the Tuareg . From the 12th century BC The Phoenicians established trading bases on the coast and founded them in 814 BC. The trading city of Carthage in today's Tunisia , which subsequently developed into a great power in the western Mediterranean . Around 202 BC The Berber tribes ( Moors ) united under Massinissa to form the Kingdom of Numidia and allied themselves with Rome against Carthage. The uprising of Carthage against Massinissa in 149 BC BC Rome provided the desired pretext for the Third Punic War , in the course of which Carthage was destroyed. 46 BC BC subdued Numidia and united it with Carthage to form the Roman province of Numidia-Mauretania. Until the invasion of the Vandals in 429 AD, this was Rome's granary. The Vandal rule ended in 534 with the conquest by troops of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I , making North Africa a Byzantine province.

Christianity had been gaining influence in North Africa as early as the 3rd century . Several dioceses had sprung up in the big cities: St. Augustine , the most influential Doctors of the Church in early Christianity, at the end of the 4th century Bishop of Hippo Regius , today's Annaba .

Islamization and Arabization

Around the middle of the 7th century, the Arabs advanced into the Maghreb . In 697 they conquered much of what is now Algeria. Most of the population was Islamized. In the course of the 8th century there were repeated uprisings of the Berbers against the Arab conquerors: In 757 the Berber empires in the Atlas Mountains became independent from the caliphate , while the three emerging principalities of the Idrisids , Aghlabids and Zirids came under its rule.

In the 11th century, the Berber dynasty of the Almoravids prevailed in what is now Algeria; it ruled the country for almost 100 years until it was replaced by the Almohads in 1147 . This dynasty subsequently conquered the Maghreb and southern Spain ; in the second half of the 13th century, however, the empire fell apart. Eastern Algeria became part of a Tunisian principality, in the west the kingdom of the Abd-al-Wadids with the capital Tlemcen (today's Tilimsen ) emerged from 1269 .

Ottoman rule

Bombing of Algiers (1816) by a British-Dutch squadron

At the beginning of the 16th century, the Spaniards tried to gain a foothold on the Algerian coast. Thereupon the country submitted to the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in 1519 and became its vassal ; Algeria became the Eyâlet Cezayir within the Ottoman Empire and later transformed into a Vilâyet . It remained under Ottoman suzerainty until 1830, but was de facto independent from 1711. Up until the 19th century, Algeria was able to successfully defend itself against attempts by the Spanish, Dutch , British and French to curb piracy .

The barbarian pirates plundered ships of Christians and non-Muslims in the Mediterranean. Often the pirates also robbed the sailors and passengers in order to sell them on into slavery . Historian Robert Davis estimates that between the 16th and 19th centuries, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans ended up in slavery . The current term raid came about through the slave raids on the European coasts .

Christian slaves in Algiers, 1706

French colonial rule

The first plans for the conquest of Algeria by France were drawn up under Napoleon Bonaparte . The French invasion began in 1830. The background was Charles X's domestic political problems ; The main reasons given for the attack on Algeria were the disrespectful behavior of the Algerian Dey (the famous blow with the fly whisk ), the piracy emanating from the North African coasts and the aim of spreading Christianity. The Algerians, shaped by Sufism , saw the French advance as an attack by Christianity on the world of Islam. The young Abd el-Kader became their leader and called for jihad . After massive setbacks, Thomas Robert Bugeaud became the commander of the French troops. Through extremely cruel warfare, including against civilians, he defeated Abd el-Kader in 1847. The great Kabylia was conquered by 1855. In the years that followed, Algerian uprisings were suppressed, so that in 1881 the French gained complete control of northern Algeria.

The Algerian population suffered massive losses. The state and religious structures of Algeria were smashed, the common ownership of land was abolished. Numerous settlers, Italians, Spaniards, French and Maltese streamed into the settlement colony , while the local farmers were pushed into less fertile areas. At the turn of the century, the French also conquered the Sahara regions of Algeria. Thereafter, Algeria was divided into three departments .

The population of Algeria was divided into first and second class citizens by the Code de l'indigénat of 1875, into French citizens (at first only French, since 1889 also Italian, Maltese and Spanish) and French subjects without citizenship ("Sujets"). On August 26, 1881, the three departments were declared part of France. After that they were no longer a colony, but rather French national territory with the same rights and obligations as all other departments. The Sahara areas remained under military administration.

The non-French Europeans in Algeria quickly assimilated into French culture. The almost 40,000 Algerian Jews had an intermediate position. Anti-Semitism had been widespread among the settlers since the Dreyfus Affair ; there were riots against Jews and anti-Semitic newspapers were published. In 1870 the Jewish Algerians were declared French citizens with the Décret Crémieux against their will.

In the period up to the Second World War, the Europeans acquired more and more farmland, partly through purchase and partly through legal tricks. In 1936 they held 40% of the fertile land. Yet the majority of European Algerians lived in the cities. The number of Muslim Algerians rose from two to nine million after 1870, and the number of Europeans to one million. The Muslim Algerians became impoverished in 100 years of French rule, so that malnutrition and famine were widespread. Almost all Muslims were excluded from education, which France glorified as its civilizing mission. Attempts at reforming French politics, whether by conservative or socialist forces, failed because they were mostly nationalistic in color and did not dare to question France's claim to rule over Algeria.

Marshal Randon in Algiers, 1857

At the beginning of World War I , around 30,000 Algerians were employed in France. During the war, the French government used the Algerian population as an economic and military reserve. A total of 120,000 Algerians were brought to work in France during this period. Another 173,000 served as volunteers or conscripts in the French armed forces. By 1939, the number of Algerian migrant workers in France then fell to around 32,000. From the group of these migrants the Étoile Nord-Africaine emerged , a political party of the Algerians with the aim of independence from France.

The independence movement gained momentum particularly after the Sétif massacre ; tens of thousands of Algerians had been killed by the French army during riots in Sétif , Kherrata and Guelma . In response to the rise of the independence movement in September 1947, the Algeria Statute granted all Algerians French citizenship , but this did not stop the struggle for separation from France. The Algerian War, which began in 1954 (until 1962), was fought with extreme severity on both sides. The Arab Algerians carried out terrorist attacks against European soldiers and civilians in Algeria. The French military used what is known as the " French doctrine ", which included summary executions, torture and the wiping out of entire Algerian villages. This was initially militarily successful, but after the systematic human rights violations became known, it weakened France in domestic and foreign policy. Under the leadership of the National Liberation Front (FLN), which fought and eliminated competing groups of the independence movement, Algeria achieved independence, which was recognized on March 18, 1962 in the Évian Agreement and confirmed in two referendums - in France and in Algeria itself. Independence was officially proclaimed on July 5th (national holiday next to Revolution Day on November 1st) 1962. The total number of Muslims killed in Algeria was later given by France to be 350,000, and by Algerian sources to be up to 1.5 million.

The socialist people's republic

Algeria subsequently developed into a dictatorship led by the FLN . Ferhat Abbas became the first president . After his removal, Muhammad Ahmed Ben Bella followed in 1963 , until Defense Minister Colonel Houari Boumedienne came to power in a military coup in June 1965. His government initially tried to overcome Algeria's economic dependence on France by means of an intensified socialization policy and opening up to the Eastern bloc . From 1972 she followed a course of non-alignment and established contacts with the West. After Boumedienne's death in 1978, Rabah Bitat took over the presidency temporarily until Colonel Chadli Bendjedid was elected president in February 1979 . In mid-1988 serious unrest broke out, which led to the abandonment of the FLN's monopoly of power . The causes were, among other things, high unemployment and the housing shortage. A democratization was launched and a new democratic constitution , the separation of party and state, parliamentary accountability, pluralism , political freedoms and guarantees of human rights foresaw created (Constitution of 19 November, which came three days later into force changes to the third November 1988, February 23, 1989 and November 26, 1996).

Civil war

→ Main article : Algerian civil war

The economic decline led to spontaneous riots in the capital, Algiers, in October 1988, which soon spread to other cities, killing hundreds. In the parliamentary elections in 1991/1992, the government feared a victory for the Islamist movement . After the emerging victory of the Islamic Salvation Front ( Front islamique du salut , FIS), the elections were canceled; President Chadli Bendjedid resigned under pressure from the military. This first appointed Muhammad Boudiaf as interim president , after his assassination Ali Kafi and finally General Liamine Zéroual in 1994 . In March 1992 the dissolution of the FIS was ordered, which then called for armed struggle. The civil war between Islamists and the Algerian military left over 120,000 dead. In February 1995, 95 prisoners and four guards died in the massacre in Serkadji Prison . The Algerian government used a " dirty war " approach.

As early as September 1998, the former GIA leader Hassan Hattab founded the “ Salafist Group for Sermon and Struggle ” (French: “Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat”, GSPC). It was formed on the advice of Osama bin Laden , the former leader of the internationally active Islamist terrorist organization Al-Qaida , with the aim of resuming the “holy war”, jihad , against the Algerian state power in its original form.

The most important domestic political goal of Abd al-Aziz Bouteflika , who was elected president in April 1999 with the support of the military, was to end the violent conflicts through a “policy of national reconciliation”. While the Algerian leadership had previously given the number of victims of the civil war mostly only around 30,000, he admitted that in 1999 it was around 100,000.

In September 1999 the "Law for the Reconciliation of the Citizens" (French: Loi de la Concorde Civile ) that he had proposed was approved by the people in a referendum . It provides an amnesty for terrorists who lay down their arms and who have not committed serious crimes such as murder, rape or bombings.

A little later, the “ Islamic Salvation Army ” (French: Armée Islamique du Salut , AIS), the armed arm of the Islamic Salvation Front (French: Front Islamique du Salut , FIS) banned since 1992 , decided to lay down their arms. The “ Armed Islamic Group ” (French: Groupe Islamique Armé, GIA) continued to exist, but, according to Der Spiegel , its remnants had slipped into a kind of banditry, in which religious motives only served as a cover for crime.

After a period of relative calm in 1999/2000, the violent clashes increased again. In April 2001 demonstrations in Kabylia , a mountain region in northern Algeria mainly inhabited by Berbers , were suppressed by the state gendarmerie (around 60 dead).

Pacification of the country

To defuse the Berber demands for more autonomy and democratic participation, Bouteflika pardoned the majority of the arrested demonstrators in August 2002. Bouteflika did not comply with the demands for the gendarmerie to be withdrawn from Kabylia.

In terms of economic policy, Bouteflika tried to push through a privatization program . In 2003, however, the responsible ministers Mourad Medelci and Abdelhamid Temmar had to resign under pressure from the influential trade union confederation UGTA . In February 2003, for the second time since the beginning of the decade, he organized a three-day general strike against the government's privatization program. Over 90% of the workers took part in the strike.

In the presidential elections on April 8, 2004, Bouteflika was re-elected as the first president for a second term with 83% of the vote. His main competitor, former Prime Minister Ali Benflis , spoke of fraud. Election observers from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe ( OSCE ) spoke of a fair election.

After his re-election, Bouteflika continued his “reconciliation policy” with the submission of a “Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation”. It was adopted in a referendum in September 2005. It includes a general amnesty for state security forces and state-armed militias as well as for armed groups. It denies any responsibility of the security forces and the militias for serious human rights violations . She makes criticism of the security organs a punishable offense. The regulation that implements it prevents judicial inquiries and clarification of the fate of thousands of people who “disappeared” in the course of the civil war. Lawsuits against members of the security forces must be dismissed by the courts. However, relatives of the “disappeared” can apply for compensation.

In terms of economic policy, attempts to move from a socialist planned economy to a more market-oriented economic order continued. Mourad Medelci and Abdelhamid Temmar, who were considered to be economic reformers and who had to resign in 2003, took over the finance and investment promotion ministries. They advocate the privatization of public companies and the opening of the oil and gas sector to private investment.

At the beginning of April 2009, Bouteflika won the presidential election in Algeria for the third time, according to official figures, with 90.24% of the vote and a voter turnout of 74.5%. The election was overshadowed by several violent incidents, and Bouteflika's five opponents had hardly been given the opportunity to distinguish themselves in the 19-day election campaign. The main opposition parties, the Rassemblement pour la culture et la démocratie (RCD) and the Front des forces socialistes (FFS), did not even run for election. The opposition questioned the result.

In April 2007, among other things, there were attacks on the official residence of the Algerian Prime Minister and a police station in Algiers. An attack was carried out on the UNHCR office in Algiers in December .

On February 23, 2011, the state of emergency that had existed for 19 years was lifted. This was a request from the opposition. In 1992 the state of emergency was enacted to combat armed Islamists.

On January 16, 2012, Islamists attacked a location belonging to the BP oil company and apparently took numerous foreigners hostage. The Algerian news agency APS reported that two people were killed in the attack. One of the attackers said his group comes from neighboring Mali, where France has been conducting a military operation against Islamists since the end of last week. According to their own information, the group of attackers brought under their control 41 Western foreigners, including 7 Americans.

In the election on April 17, 2014, Bouteflika was re-elected for the fourth time, despite being weakened by a stroke ; According to the Interior Ministry, 81.5% of the votes went to the incumbent, 12.18% went to Ali Benflis .

politics

Political system

President Tebboune (2020)

Under the 1996 constitution , Algeria is a semi-presidential republic headed by a head of state elected by the people every five years. He appoints and dismisses the prime minister , who is solely responsible for him, as chairman of the executive branch .

On April 2, 2019, the aged President Abd al-Aziz Bouteflika, who had been in power for 20 years, resigned after violent popular protests against his renewed candidacy for the 2019 presidential election . The election was postponed several times and took place on December 12th. Abdelmadjid Tebboune won it in the first ballot. After the results were announced, the army sided with Tebboune. The Constitutional Court declared the election on December 16 to be legal.

The parliament consists of the National People's Assembly ( Assemblée Populaire Nationale ) and the Council of the Nation ( Conseil de la Nation / Majlis al-'Umma ). The 462 members of the People's Assembly are elected every five years. In the Council of the Nation, 96 members are fully elected every six years and half every three years by the local councils, and the remaining 48 members are appointed by the head of state. All Algerians have the right to vote from the age of 18.

The first parliamentary elections after the Arab Spring were held in Algeria on May 10, 2012 . Elections were held again in 2017. The ruling National Liberation Front (FLN) achieved the highest share of the vote with 26% and received 161 seats in parliament. The National Democratic Collection (RND) won 100 seats.

On February 19, 2021, President Abdelmadjid Tebboune announced the dissolution of the National Assembly and its early election.

See also : List of political parties in Algeria

Women's suffrage

The history of women's suffrage in North Africa and in the Middle East in Algeria goes back to colonial times: in 1944 Christian and Jewish women with French citizenship (Européennes) who lived in Algeria, which belongs to France, were given the right to vote; Muslimas were excluded. In July 1958, Charles de Gaulle put the loi-cadre Defferre , which also gave Muslims the right to vote, into force for Algeria. With the proclamation of independence on July 5, 1962, this right was confirmed. The active and passive right to vote for women in the new state of Algeria was thus established on July 5, 1962.

Political indices

Political indices issued by non-governmental organizations

Name of the index	Index value	Worldwide rank	Interpretation aid	year
Fragile States Index	74.6 out of 120	71 of 178	Stability of the country: increased warning 0 = very sustainable / 120 = very alarming	2020
Democracy index	▼ 3.77 out of 10	▼ 115 of 167	Hybrid regime 0 = authoritarian regime / 10 = complete democracy	2020
Freedom in the World	34 of 100	---	Freedom status: not free 0 = not free / 100 = free	2020
Freedom of the press ranking	▲ 47.26 out of 100	▬ 146 of 180	Difficult situation for freedom of the press 0 = good situation / 100 = very serious situation	2021
Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI)	▲ 36 out of 100	▲ 104 of 180	0 = very corrupt / 100 = very clean	2020

Domestic politics

Due to economic and social problems as well as dissatisfaction with the performance of the political system, Islamist movements in Algeria are very successful. These call for an Islamist state whose internal structure and foreign policy should be based on the rules of a radical interpretation of Islam . Most of them are forbidden and represent at most something like an extra-parliamentary opposition . According to Amnesty International, several hundred deaths continue every year as a result of assassinations. They are now often assigned to the group " Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb ", to which the GSPC renamed itself in early 2007.

Human rights and democracy

Werner Ruf , professor emeritus for international politics, criticized the political development in Algeria in an interview with the Tagesschau on the occasion of the visit of Chancellor Angela Merkel in July 2008: "De facto the military still rules." Parliamentarism is a facade. “Behind it there is an opaque clique at the head of the military. These are people who get rich. The corruption is enormous. "The country remains" a long way from what we call a constitutional state , a democracy . "

Thomas Schiller, head of the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung's Algiers office , explained in 2008 that Algeria has achieved a lot in the last 10 years, despite still considerable political, economic and, above all, social deficits - above all stability. The political stabilization since Bouteflika took office and an increasingly active civil society would help the country to return to normal. He describes Bouteflika's policy as "successful". They mix tough crackdowns against terrorists with a "reconciliation policy", securing Algerian independence with cautious reforms and economic opening.

Although the death penalty exists in Algeria, it has not been officially carried out for over ten years. There has been a general ban on demonstrations in Algiers since 2001. The freedom of the press is noticeably restricted. There is censorship in Algeria .

In its November 2007 report on the human rights situation in Algeria, the UN Human Rights Committee expressed concern about numerous indications of secret detention centers. He also emphasized that there were many reports of torture and ill-treatment by the DRS military intelligence service. The committee also criticizes the fact that many journalists are victims of intimidation and that women continue to be discriminated against in their marriage (see literature, Amnesty International).

Human rights organizations such as Amnesty International accuse Bouteflika's “reconciliation policy” above all of simply aiming to make people forget the violence of the 1990s instead of coming to terms with the events in legal terms. Criticism and demonstrations by relatives of the victims are suppressed by the government. The Bertelsmann Foundation's report on the political and economic transformation in Algeria (“Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2003”) states: “The processing of human rights violations related to the domestic political conflict that has been going on since 1992 did not take place at the national level. Neither the Islamist crimes nor the state attacks as part of the measures to combat Islamist terrorism were discussed. "

In June 2018 allegations became known that Algeria had taken at least 13,000 migrants, including pregnant women and children, to the desert in trucks since April 2017 and abandoned them there without food or water. The people had been instructed to walk 15 kilometers through the desert towards the neighboring state of Niger , for example to the village of Assamaka . Police previously reportedly stole money and cell phones from migrants. According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), only about 11,276 people arrived in Niger after often days of wandering. Eyewitnesses reported numerous deaths, mostly from exhaustion, and of people lost in the desert and never seen again. The EU is said to have been informed about the situation, but did not intervene with reference to the sovereignty of Algeria. The Algerian authorities deny the allegations.

Homosexuality in Algeria is socially outlawed and illegal there under current law. There have been several fatal attacks on homosexuals in recent years, as well as a public stoning.

Foreign policy

Algeria has been a member of the United Nations since 1962 and has observer status in the WTO . Otherwise, the country is a member of the African Union (AU), the Arab League , the Organization for Islamic Cooperation , the Organization of Petroleum Exporting States ( OPEC ) and the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting States ( OAPEC ). In addition to the member states of the African Union and the Arab League, Algeria has good relations with the European Union (EU), the United States , Russia and especially the People's Republic of China .

Algeria cooperates with the EU as part of the Euro-Mediterranean partnership . In 2002 the EU and Algeria signed an association agreement. It came into force in 2005. On March 13, 2017, at the Association Council, Algeria and the EU adopted their joint partnership priorities. The partnership priorities up to 2020 include the following:

• “Political dialogue, governance, the rule of law and the promotion of fundamental rights;
• Cooperation, socio-economic development and trade relations including access to the European internal market
• Energy issues, environmental protection and sustainable development
• strategic and security policy dialogue
• human dimension, including cultural and interreligious dialogue, as well as migration and mobility. "

Relations between Algeria and France are close. Both sides speak of a strategic partnership and a trusting cooperation despite the difficult colonial past. The already intensive economic relations are to be expanded further.

Algeria is an important player in the region due to its size, geographical location and richness in natural resources.

Algeria sees itself surrounded by various trouble spots and is concerned about stability and security as well as economic development in the region. In relations with its international partners, Algeria not only has to fight terrorism, but also economic interests (oil / gas exports and interest in foreign investments in Algeria).

Regional cooperation in the Maghreb continues to suffer from the tense relationship between Algeria and Morocco. The land borders between the two countries remain closed. In particular, differences over the Western Sahara make rapprochement difficult. Algeria supports the Polisario movement, which fights for the independence of Western Sahara, and provides shelter to leading members.

Relations between Algeria and Tunisia are based on partnership. There is an increased and well-functioning cooperation between the two countries in the area of ​​security, especially when it comes to securing the common borders.

The situation in Libya is a matter of great concern to Algeria in view of the instability it emanates. Algeria rejects any military intervention and advocates a political solution based on dialogue between all Libyan parties. Algeria supports the relevant mediation efforts of the United Nations.

As chief mediator, Algeria had played a crucial role in the successful peace negotiations between the Malian government and groups in northern Mali, which culminated in June 2015 with the signing of a peace agreement in Algiers.

Algeria maintains good relations with the Syrian government and tries to prevent Syria from isolating itself in the Islamic world. Ex-Foreign Minister Lakhdar Brahimi has been trying in vain to end the civil war in Syria as a UN special mediator since 2012 .

military

Armed forces

Coat of arms of the Algerian armed forces

The armed forces of 147,000 men are divided into army (127,000), air force (14,000) and navy (6,000). The Algerian Ministry of Defense is also responsible for the gendarmerie , the border guard and other paramilitary groups.

Algeria spent almost 5.7 percent of its economic output or 10 billion US dollars on its armed forces in 2017. A total of 16.1% of government spending went to the military, which is one of the highest proportions in the world and a major burden for the state budget. Algeria had the highest military spending in North Africa.

→ Main article : Algerian armed forces

French nuclear weapons tests

There are two former French nuclear test sites on which France carried out a total of 17 nuclear tests between 1960 and 1966:

• with Reggane : 1960-1961: four tests above ground
• in In Ekker : 1961–1966: 13 tests, underground

On February 13, 1960, France tested its first atomic bomb (with an explosive force of 70 kt TNT equivalent) near Reggane. It was the most powerful bomb that ever detonated in a first test. For comparison: the first US test ( Trinity ) had a strength of 20 kt, the first USSR test ( RDS-1 ) was 22 kt, and the first British test ( Hurricane ) was 25 kt. The Hiroshima bomb ( Little Boy ) was 13 kt and the Nagasaki ( Fat Man ) bomb was 22 kt. The other three above-ground bombs at Reggane were each less than 5 kt.

On November 7, 1961, the first of 13 underground tests took place at In Ekker in Hoggar. During the second test ( Béryl ) on May 1, 1962, the tunnel was not closed. Radioactive gases, dust and lava were emitted. The observers of the test were contaminated (including French ministers present). Three other tests did not go according to plan either, but according to the Ministry of Defense without leakage of radioactive substances: March 30, 1963 - “Amethyst” / October 20, 1963 - “Ruby” (100 kt) / and May 30, 1965 - “Jade ". The strongest test in In Ekker on February 25, 1965 was “Saphir” with 150 kt.

The tests in Algeria ended with the test on February 16, 1966. The tests were relocated to French Polynesia ( Mururoa and Fangataufa- Atoll), where tests were continued above ground (not underground again until 1974).

It should be noted that there was a ban on atmospheric nuclear weapons tests between Great Britain, the USA and the USSR (released for signature on August 5, 1963, entered into force on October 10, 1963) to which they adhered (last atmospheric test: GB : September 23, 1958 / USA: June 9, 1963 / USSR: December 25, 1962). France and China did not adhere to it, continued to test above ground: France: July 2, 1966 to September 14, 1974: 41 tests, China: October 16, 1964 to October 16, 1980: 22 tests.

At the request of Algeria, the IAEA examined the area near Reggane and stated in its report from 2005 that nothing could be done due to the very weak residual radioactivity, only in the case of major human activities in the area, access to the four explosion sites should be prohibited. The location of the Béryl accident at In Ekker still seems to have been contaminated and, at least in the past, poorly secured, so that the residual radiation can pose a threat to uninformed locals and tourists. The regions are used for tourism, although probably not every tourist is informed about the past and the radiation situation of the area.

Administrative division

Provinces of Algeria

→ Main article : Wilayat of Algeria

The country is divided into 58 administrative districts ( Wilayat , Singular Wilaya ), each named after the capital. The Wilayat have their own parliaments, but are ultimately subordinate to the central government.

Below the administrative level of the Wilaya (province) there is the level Daïra (district) and the lowest level is the commune ( Arabic بلدية, DMG Baladiyah , French Commune algérienne ). Like the Wilayat, the municipalities have the status of collectivités territoriales ( local authorities ).

In 2016, 71.3% of the population lived in cities or urban areas. The largest cities are (as of 2008 census):

1. Algiers : 2,364,230 inhabitants
2. Oran : 803,329 inhabitants
3. Constantine : 448,028 inhabitants
4. Annaba : 342,703 inhabitants
5. Blida : 331,779 inhabitants

See also : List of cities in Algeria

business

Bazaar in Algiers

Wheat fields, Guelma , Algeria

Algeria is one of the richer countries in Africa in terms of per capita income . In the Global Competitiveness Index , which measures a country's competitiveness, Algeria was ranked 86th out of 138 countries (2016-2017). In 2019, Algeria ranks 171st out of 180 countries in the Economic Freedom Index . The country's economy is still not very liberalized.

The extraction and export of oil and natural gas are decisive for the Algerian economy. The export revenues from the hydrocarbon sector, which contributes around 27 percent to the gross domestic product (GDP) and generates around 60 percent of government revenue, make up around 94 percent of export revenues. Domestic energy consumption, which has been growing for years, is reducing revenues from oil and gas exports in addition to the persistently low prices.

The Algerian government wants to increase industrial production in Algeria and create more jobs outside the oil and gas sector. The Algerian government is pushing the mining of phosphate and ore deposits. In the long term, it is also intended to start producing shale gas, although there was resistance from the population to initial shale gas exploration. In addition, the generation of energy from renewable sources is to be expanded considerably. Rapid progress towards economic diversification and thus the reduction of the strong dependence on the oil and gas sector is urgently required in view of the deteriorating budgetary situation.

The government wants to improve the transfer of know-how and the training of qualified specialists. In vocational training, the focus is on the creation of training centers in partnership with companies, which are intended to contribute to closer integration of the education sector with the economy and to needs-based training. Industrial zones with cluster formation are being established across the country.

Due to falling government and foreign exchange revenues, the 2017 Budget Act provides for a number of savings measures and tax increases. In addition, the government limits the import of foreign goods by granting licenses for certain product groups such as new cars, but also cement, steel reinforcement and other products.

The unemployment rate was 5.7% in 2017, and underemployment is widespread. The unemployment rate for young people was 23.9% in the same year. The total number of employees is estimated at 11.8 million for 2017; 18.3% of them are women.

Order and production structure

Planned economy

After gaining independence, the ruling one party Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) relied on a state- planned economy and “Algerian socialism ” for a long time . Thanks to the income from oil and gas exports, Algeria was initially able to afford an inefficient state economy. At the end of the 1980s, however, falling oil prices , high unemployment and housing shortages led to social tensions, which finally erupted in serious unrest in 1988 and contributed to the outbreak of civil war.

After the domestic political situation had stabilized significantly since the end of the 1990s, the government is increasingly making efforts to liberalize and privatize the economy. The legacy of the earlier planned economy, the excessive bureaucracy, widespread corruption, the poorly performing banking sector and the still insecure internal situation, however, do not create favorable conditions for the rapid development of private companies and foreign investment.

State company

Industry and banking are still largely dominated by state-owned companies. The privatization efforts in the industry focus on fertilizer manufacturers, petrochemical and pharmaceutical companies.

The banking system is dominated by six state institutions. The privatization of the bank Crédit Populaire d'Algérie, planned for mid-2007, had to be postponed due to the international financial market crisis. Since the six state banks continue to grant loans to unprofitable state-owned companies, “bad loans” that are not repaid and are partly bought up by the state make up over 30% of the total loan portfolio. In addition, the economy remains undersupplied with loans due to insufficient capitalization of the banks compared to its neighbors Tunisia or Morocco. Cash transactions dominate.

Energy industry

Algeria's economy remains heavily dependent on the energy sector , which is dominated by the state-owned oil and gas company Sonatrach . The oil reserves are estimated at 12.2 billion barrels and the gas reserves at 4.5 trillion cubic meters. The oil and gas industry accounted for around 20% of GDP in 2019 and was responsible for 85% of exports.

History of oil and gas production

Oil production (gray), of which exports (green) and consumption (black line) in Algeria since 1964

Gas production (gray), of which exports (green) and consumption (black line) in Algeria since 1970

Commercial oil production in Algeria began in 1958 in the Edjeleh and Hassi Messaoud oil fields . French oil companies and the French colonial government worked closely together to set up their own cheap oil production within France . After independence, the activities of the French oil companies were initially not affected, as agreed in the Evian contracts. After this excess income, however, only a small part of the profits was given to the Algerian state. In order to keep more money in the country, the Ben Bella government founded the Société Nationale de Transport et de Commercialization des Hydrocarbures ( Sonatrach for short ) in 1963 . After further negotiations with France, the influence of the state company grew, which in the following years took over many shares of foreign oil companies in projects in Algeria. In 1969 Sonatrach controlled all Algerian oil fields, and had a majority stake in all pipelines and the country's only refinery in Algiers. In the same year the country joined the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). 1971 nationalized the government Boumedienne also the natural gas deposits and pipelines, and took over 51% of all foreign oil companies in Algeria. This nationalization of the French oil companies in Algeria also led to international displeasure. The nationalization law ( Loi sur les Hydrocarbures , dt. About hydrocarbon law) also allowed joint ventures with foreign companies, in which Sonatrach always had to hold at least 51% of the shares.

In the following years Sonatrach turned increasingly to the petrochemical industry and the export of natural gas. B. via the Transmed pipeline to Italy. In the 1980s, the company was one of the world's largest exporters of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Over the next few decades, several new joint ventures with international companies were set up to produce and sell more oil and gas. This also included the construction of the Meghreb Europe gas pipeline (MEG) to Spain , later supplemented by the Medgaz pipeline. Since the new millennium there have also been efforts to reduce the government's influence on Sonatrach and to liberalize the market .

On March 20, 2005, the Bouteflika government passed a new hydrocarbon law that replaced the old regulations. Sonatrach lost its role as a regulatory authority and its sales monopoly. The law also allowed foreign companies to acquire 70% of the shares in mining facilities and plants. Parliament protested the law, so it was amended again in July 2006. According to this, foreign oil and gas companies will have to be content with minority stakes in Algeria. There is also a special tax if the price of oil is above $ 30 per barrel. Since in the next few years, even after the global economic crisis from 2007 , fewer and fewer foreign investments could be attracted, three further amendments to the law followed. In January 2020, a new hydrocarbon law was finally passed that, among other things, lowered and abolished taxes and tariffs in the natural gas and oil sectors. Since the start of the global COVID-19 pandemic , oil and gas prices have been even lower than before.

oil

Drilling rig in the El Merk oil field, 2014

In 2019, 1.1 million barrels of crude oil were produced daily in Algeria, of which around half were exported. The falling world market price for oil severely impaired the Algerian economy, and the oil fields that have been developed are increasingly depleted. The main oil fields in the country at the time were Hassi Messaoud and Ourhoud .

gas

After an expansion phase until 2005, natural gas production in Algeria has grown rather moderately in recent years. The hostage-taking of In Aménas also hampered production for two years. Low foreign investments, the increasingly depleted gas fields (including the largest gas field, Hassi R'Mel ) and increasing domestic demand have meant that the export of natural gas has been declining since 2005. Around 100 billion cubic meters of natural gas were produced in 2018, slightly more than half of which was exported. The main buyer countries were Italy and Spain, which together accounted for two thirds of the export volume. In addition to the three existing gas pipelines ( Transmed , MEG, Medgaz ) to these countries, there are also two LNG terminals in Algeria, in Béthioua and Skikda .

Electricity supply

Algeria was 52nd in terms of annual generation in 2011 with 48.05 billion kWh and 48th in the world for installed capacity in 2013 with 15.2 GW . In 2011, 99.8% of the electricity was generated in gas-fired power plants. According to the Ministry of Energy, 48.87 billion kWh were produced in 2011, of which 9.65 billion (19.8%) were produced by steam power plants, 15.7 billion (32.1%) by combined cycle power plants , 22 billion (45 .1%) from gas turbines and 1.5 billion (3.0%) from other generation. The peak consumption rose from 4,965 MW in 2002 to 8,606 MW in 2011, which corresponds to an average annual increase of 6.3%.

The Société Algérienne de Production de l'Electricité (SPE), a subsidiary of the state-owned Sonelgaz , had a generation capacity of 8,445 MW in 2009 and generated 24.24 billion kWh in 2010. In 2011 it was by far the largest electricity producer in Algeria. In 2013, SPE signed a contract with GE that provides for the construction of 6 new combined cycle power plants with an installed capacity of 8 GW.

Algeria also intends to build nuclear power plants in the longer term . In 2014, an agreement was signed between Russia's ROSATOM and Algeria, which provides for cooperation in this area. Potential locations for nuclear power plants have already been examined for their suitability.

The grid Algeria is part of the South-Western Mediterranean block (SWMB), which includes the power grids of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. Since 1997, the SWMB is connected to the European grid system synchronized, as a first phase current - submarine cables (400 kV , 700 MW was) from Spain moved to Morocco.

See also : List of power plants in Algeria

Renewable energy

In addition, renewable energies are to be expanded significantly. A program approved by the government in February 2015 envisages building a regenerative power plant capacity of 22 GW by 2030  . 13.5 GW of this is to be attributable to photovoltaics , 5 GW to wind energy , 2 GW to solar thermal power plants , 1 GW to bioenergy , 400 MW to combined heat and power systems and 15 MW to geothermal energy . In 2011, the Hassi R'Mel power plant, the world's first ISCC power plant, went online. H. a solar hybrid combined cycle power plant in which a conventional gas-fired combined cycle power plant is supported by additional solar heat. The construction of further and larger plants of this type is planned.

Diversification

The diversification of the economy, the stronger development of the economy outside the energy industry, is therefore a main goal of the government. Special hopes are placed in the transport , tourism , construction and information technology sectors . The construction industry has already received a strong growth impetus from a government investment program worth USD 60 billion, which includes the construction of one million new homes.

Foreign trade liberalization

With the implementation of the Association Agreement with the European Union (EU) that came into force on September 1, 2005 , competitive pressure is increasing for Algerian companies. The contract with the EU provides that all trade barriers between the two partners will be removed within twelve years and that Algeria will become part of the intended free trade area. The envisaged accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) will also force Algeria to open its markets to a greater extent.

The formation of the Mediterranean Union with the EU states clearly shows the importance of the resource-rich Mediterranean countries for the EU - especially with regard to energy supply. The EU's efforts to diversify its energy sources are making Algeria, which today already supplies around 25% of the EU's natural gas imports, an increasingly important trading partner.

On July 22nd, 2009 the Algerian government decided to move the weekend from Thursday / Friday to Friday / Saturday. This regulation is to apply from August 14, 2009. This should achieve a GDP growth of 1.2 percent. Since Algeria has only shared three days of the week with the western industrialized nations since 1976, annual losses of between 500 and 700 million US dollars have occurred according to World Bank calculations .

Overall Economic Development

Growth, inflation, labor market

In 2016 Algeria recorded an economic growth of 3.3%. Due to the lower oil price, growth was lower than in the previous year, when it was 3.8%. Production outside the oil and gas sector has risen steadily by around 4 to 5% since 2003. State investment programs, especially for the creation of living space and the expansion of the infrastructure, make a significant contribution to this.

The rise in consumer prices accelerated in 2008 with a sharp rise in food prices, but remained relatively low at 4.4%. It should be noted that energy prices in Algeria, for example, are regulated by the state.

Combating unemployment is an ongoing challenge for the Algerian government . According to official information, it was 11.7% in 2019. Youth unemployment is particularly high; it was stated at 29.1% in 2019.

Export earnings

The overall economic development has benefited from the sharp rise in oil and gas prices since 2003. They ensured that export revenues doubled from 2003 to 2007 to around 60 billion US dollars. The surplus in the current account increased to almost a quarter of GDP, to which the remittances from Algerians employed abroad also contributed.

Thanks to the sharp rise in government revenues from the oil and gas sector, Algeria also had large surpluses in the national budget. Some of them flow as savings into the so-called “Income Regulation Fund” (FRR). Funds from this fund were also used to repay Algerian foreign debts, which were reduced from around 58% of GDP in 1999 to around 2.5% of GDP in 2009.

The international currency reserves reached around 150 billion US dollars as of December 31, 2009 thanks to high revenues from the oil and gas sector.

State budget

The state budget in 2016 comprised expenditures equivalent to the equivalent of 66.45 billion US dollars, which was offset by income equivalent to 42.69 billion US dollars. This results in a budget deficit of 14.7% of GDP .

The national debt in 2016 was $ 32.8 billion, or 20.4% of GDP.

In 2006 the share of government expenditure (as a percentage of GDP) was in the following areas:

• Health  : 4.2%
• Education  : 5.1% (1999)
• Military  : 3.3%

Sectoral economic development

Agriculture

The agriculture contributed to information from the German Office for Foreign Trade in 2006 at just under 8% of total output. It employs around 1.2 million people.

Intensive agricultural use is only possible on a narrow strip in the north. Only 3% of the country's area is arable and permanent cultivated land, which is predominantly privately owned. The extensive , partly nomadic livestock focuses on the highlands of the bulkhead and the northern Sahara. In the forests of the Tell Atlas is cork won.

The most important agricultural products are cereals , sugar beets , potatoes , legumes , tomatoes , olives , dates , figs , tobacco , wine and citrus fruits . In greenhouses made of plastic film, early vegetables are grown for export .

There are around 15 million date palms in Algeria, most of them in the oases . They produce around 500,000 tons of dates of varying quality every year. The soft, high-quality varieties are partly exported to Europe , the hard, resistant varieties are also sold in many countries in Black Africa , which are very popular there because of their durability in the tropical climate.

Less than 40% of the food requirement is covered by in-house production. Algeria is Africa's most important food importer : only 20% of grain and cereal products, 20% of vegetables , 60% of milk and 95% of red meat are produced domestically. 95% of the raw edible oil and practically all of the raw sugar and coffee are imported.

Mining

In addition to crude oil and natural gas, iron , copper , lead and zinc ores as well as mercury and phosphate are mined as mineral resources in Algeria .

Industry and Commerce

In the industrial sector, the focus is on the processing of crude oil and natural gas, as well as the iron and steel industry and the metalworking branches based on it. In addition, there is the processing of agricultural products, for example an edible oil refinery and a sugar refinery in the port city of Oran , fertilizer production and the building materials industry .

In 2007, goods worth a total of US $ 59.9 billion were exported , 98% crude oil , natural gas and petroleum products. The main customer countries were the USA (27%), Italy (15%), Spain (10%), Canada (8%) and France (7.5%).

In 2007, goods worth a total of US $ 25.2 billion were imported, including 37% equipment goods , 31% production goods , 18% foodstuffs , and 15% consumer goods. The main suppliers were 17% France, 9% Italy, 8% China, 8% the USA and 6% Germany.

Trade restrictions

In order to avoid unwanted and poor quality imports, the Central Bank of Algeria decided in February 2009 with the notification N ° 16 / DGC / 2009 that three documents are presented when goods are imported. The submission is mandatory with immediate effect if payment is made by “remise documentaire” (export debt collection) or “crédit documentaire” (export letter of credit). These are the three following certificates:

• certificat phytosanitaire
• certificat d'origine
• certificat de contrôle de qualité de la marchandise

The certificates must be issued in the exporter's country for each delivery. The first two certificates were previously required for imports into Algeria, new is the mandatory submission of the "certificat de contrôle de qualité de la marchandise" for every delivery, it must be issued by an independent testing organization such as TÜV Hessen . If the three documents are not available when the goods are imported, the "domiciliation" at the Algerian bank will not be accepted and the goods cannot be cleared through customs. According to the Algerian banks, the certificate must confirm the quality of the product and its conformity with Algerian standards or the corresponding international standards and norms.

Key figures

Change in gross domestic product (GDP), real World Bank

year	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
Change in% yoy	1.7	3.4	2.4	1.6	3.6	2.9	3.4	2.8	3.8	3.8	3.3	1.7

Development of GDP (nominal), World Bank

absolute (in billion USD)				per inhabitant (in thousands of USD)
year	2015	2016	2017	year	2015	2016	2017
GDP in billions of dollars	165.9	159.0	170.4	GDP per inhabitant (in thousands of dollars)	4.2	3.9	4.1

Foreign Trade Development (GTAI)

in billion US dollars and its percentage change from the previous year
	2014		2015		2016
	Billion USD	% yoy	Billion USD	% yoy	Billion USD	% year-on-year
import	58.6	+6.8	51.8	−11.6	47.1	−9.1
export	60.4	−8.5	34.8	−42.4	30.0	−13.8
balance	+1.8		−17.0		−17.1

Main trading partner of Algeria (2016), source: GTAI

Export (in percent) to		Import (in percent) of
Italy	17.4	People's Republic of China	17.9
Spain	12.9	France	10.1
United States	12.9	Italy	9.9
France	11.4	Spain	7.6
Brazil	5.4	Germany	6.4
Netherlands	4.9	United States	4.9
Turkey	4.5	Turkey	4.1
other countries	30.6	other countries	39.1

Infrastructure

Transportation

Network of the main railway lines in Algeria

The transport network is concentrated in northern Algeria.

The main port cities are Algiers , Annaba , Oran , Bejaia , Skikda and Béthioua , with ferry connections across the Mediterranean .

The rail network of the Algerian Railways (SNTF) has a length of 3810 kilometers, of which 386.3 kilometers are electrified. The most important railway line for Algerian rail traffic runs in a west-east direction, mostly in the Tell Atlas, parallel to the coast and is connected to the Moroccan and Tunisian rail network. From it branch lines go both to the port cities and south to the edge of the Sahara. For the 160 km / h fast S-Bahn system, which opened in Algiers in 2009 , 64 four-part electric multiple units of type FLIRT were ordered from Stadler in Switzerland .

The roads (a total of 180,000 kilometers, around 85% of which are paved) mostly turn into desert slopes south of the Atlas Mountains. In 2007, the construction of a major infrastructure project, the 1216 km long, six-lane east-west A1 motorway (part of the " Transmaghrébine "), began and was largely completed in mid-2010 with the help of numerous international construction companies. Construction of a second east-west motorway began in early 2014. The paved roads in the south of the country run essentially in a north-south direction and connect Algeria with the neighboring states Niger ( N 1 ) and Mali ( N 6 ) as well as the border region between Mauritania and the Western Sahara claimed by Morocco ( N 50 ) .

There are international airports in Algiers ( ALG ), Oran (ORN), Annaba ( AAE ) and Chlef ( QAS ), among others .

Since the transport infrastructure is particularly hindering the economic development of Algeria, the government drew up a five-year plan in 2005 according to which the transport infrastructure is to be modernized through joint ventures with the private sector. There is also great potential to catch up in tourism compared to neighboring countries . 70 percent of today's tourists are Algerians visiting friends or family.

Pipelines

As of 2020, Algeria is connected to three international gas pipelines, and there are also several domestic pipelines.

• The 1070 km long Transmed pipeline, also known as the Enrico Mattei pipeline , runs from the Hassi R'Mel gas field in the Algerian Sahara via Tunisia to Sicily . The gas pipeline, built between 1978 and 1983, is the most important and oldest international gas pipeline in Algeria. In 1995 the annual capacity was doubled to 24 billion cubic meters, and later increased to 32 billion cubic meters per year.

• The 1375 km long Maghreb-Europa-Gasleitung (MEG), also known as the Pedro-Duran-Farrel-Pipeline , connects Hassi R'Mel to Córdoba via Morocco and the Strait of Gibraltar . There it is connected to the Spanish and Portuguese gas networks. The pipeline, which opened in November 1996, initially had an annual capacity of 8.5 billion cubic meters per year, which was expanded to 12.5 billion cubic meters in 2005.
• The Medgaz pipeline, which runs between the Hassi R'Mel natural gas field in Algeria and mainland Spain on the coast of Almería , opened in 2011. It has a capacity of 8.5 billion cubic meters per year.

Further international gas pipelines are only planned so far:

• The GALSI pipeline from Hassi R'Mel via El Kala to Sardinia and from there to northern Italy has been in planning since around 2004. After several delays and changes in the market, the project as of 2020 will no longer be continued.

• In the longer term, a connection to the planned 4,400 km long Transsahara pipeline from Nigeria to Algeria and Spain is planned. Nigeria, Niger and Algeria signed an agreement in 2009, but by 2018 the project had not gotten past an initial planning phase, according to a government official. The reason for this should also be the problems of the Nigerian gas industry in fulfilling its supply contracts for West Africa .

Space travel

The Agence spatiale Algérienne (ASAL), the Space Agency of Algeria. It was founded in 2002.

Culture

Mosque in Algiers

The Algerian culture is determined by influences of the former colonial power, Berber and Arab traditions. Since the 1980s there have been increasing clashes between Berbers and the central government, in which numerous people have been killed by the gendarmerie. In 2001, for example, over 100 people were shot dead in the street. In the course of the planned parliamentary elections in 2004, the Bouteflika government finally made concessions to the Berbers ( Berber in schools). The Berber language has only recently become an officially recognized language.

literature

Mohammed Dib had to leave Algeria after his first novels appeared in the 1950s. Algerian literature today presents itself as literature in exile , as the writers, with few exceptions, have sought the way abroad due to political repression. Well-known representatives are Assia Djebar , Rachid Boudjedra , Maïssa Bey , Yasmina Khadra and Boualem Sansal . Algerian literature is heavily influenced by Arab cultural heritage. However, there is also a cultural heritage of the Berber minority. Many Berber authors write in French and Tamazight .

broadcast

Radio Algérienne is the national broadcaster of Algeria. His international service broadcasts Quran programs on several shortwave frequencies, which are broadcast via a station in Issoudun , France. Live audio streams in Arabic are available over the Internet. Radio Algérienne's domestic service broadcasts on long and medium wave.

Sports

Olympic games

So far, five Algerian athletes have won a gold medal at the Olympic Games :

1. Hassiba Boulmerka ( 1992 - athletics , 1,500 m, women)
2. Noureddine Morceli ( 1996 - athletics, 1500 m, men)
3. Hocine Soltani (1996 - boxing , middleweight 71-75 kg, men)
4. Nouria Mérah-Benida ( 2000 - athletics, 1500 m, women)
5. Taoufik Makhloufi ( 2012 - athletics, 1500 m, men)

Soccer

Algerian footballers have played an important role in the French professional league since the 1930s (see also here ) .

The Algerian national soccer team has so far qualified for the finals of a soccer world championship four times : in 1982 , 1986 , 2010 and most recently in 2014 , where they made it into the round of 16 for the first time and lost 2-1 after extra time against Germany in a hard-fought game. In 2019 Algeria won the Africa Cup .

Kabyle Rabah Madjer was the first football player from Africa to win the European Cup, today's Champions League , with his Portuguese club FC Porto . His Hackentrick goal in the 1987 final in Vienna against FC Bayern Munich is still legendary . The three-time world footballer Zinédine Zidane was born the son of Algerian- Kabyle immigrants, but only played for France .

Cycling

Since 1949, at irregular intervals is Tour d'Algérie the cyclists held an international stage race .

Rallying

The Paris-Dakar rally ran through Algeria until the end of the 1980s .

See also

• 

  Portal: Algeria  - Overview of Wikipedia content on Algeria
• Algerian French
• List of Algerian ambassadors in Germany
• List of the Algerian ambassadors in the German Democratic Republic

literature

• WG Peace Research at the University of Kassel: Algeria reports; Algeria (Peace Council) .
• Amnesty International: Algeria .
• Birgit Agada: Culture and nature between the Mediterranean and the Sahara , travel guide, Trescher Verlag, Berlin, 2nd edition 2015, ISBN 978-3-89794-300-1 .
• Donata Kinzelbach: Algeria - a country is catching up! (with photos), Mainz 2015, ISBN 978-3-942490-25-2 .
• Bernhard Schmid: Colonial Algeria . Unrast, Münster 2006, ISBN 3-89771-027-7 .
• Bernhard Schmid: Algeria - Frontline State in Global War? Neoliberalism, Social Movements and Islamist Ideology in a North African Country. Münster 2005, ISBN 3-89771-019-6 .
• Eva Dingel: The Algerian Civil War 1992–2002: Background to a war without a name. 2004.
• Romain Leick: Algeria: Salafists and GIA fighters. In: Spiegel special. 2/2004, June 29, 2004 (Spiegel Online) .
• Khadija Katja Wöhler-Khalfallah: Islamic Fundamentalism, Islam and Democracy. Algeria and Tunisia: The Failure of Post-Colonial “Development Models” and the Striving for an Ethical Guide for Politics and Society. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2004.
• Bertelsmann Stiftung: Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2003, Algeria .
• Fabio Maniscalco (ed.): Protection of cultural property in Algerie. monographic series (= Mediterraneum. Protection and valorization of cultural heritage. vol 3) . Naples 2003, ISBN 88-87835-41-1 .
• Thomas Hasel: Power Conflict in Algeria. (= Middle East Studies. 3). Verlag Hans Schiler, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-89930-190-0 .
• Habib Souaidia: Dirty War in Algeria - Report by an ex-officer of the special forces of the army (1992-2000). Chronos-Verlag, 2001, ISBN 3-0340-0537-7 .
• William Quandt: Société et pouvoir en Algérie. édité par Casbah, 1999.
• Sabine Kebir : Algeria. Between dream and nightmare. 1998, ISBN 3-612-26194-0 .
• Werner Ruf : The Algerian tragedy: the breakup of the state of a divided society . Agenda, Münster 1997.
• Severine Labat: Les islamistes algeriens: Entre les urnes et les maquis. Edition du Seuil, Paris 1995.
• Ursula and Wolfgang Eckert: Algerian Sahara. A travel guide. second, revised and expanded edition. DuMont Buchverlag, Cologne 1984, ISBN 3-7701-1317-9 .
• Hans Strelocke: Algeria: Art, Culture and Landscape. From the sites of the Romans to the Touaregs of the central Sahara . DuMont Schauberg, Cologne 1974, ISBN 3-7701-0721-7 .

English speaking

• Rachid Tlemçani: Algeria Under Bouteflika: Civil Strife and National Reconciliation. Carnegie Endowment Paper, March 2008.
• Library of Congress - Federal Research Division Country Profile: Algeria, May 2008; LC (PDF; 191 kB)

business

• Federal Agency for Foreign Trade: Algeria. Compact economic data. November 2019
• Germany Trade & Invest: The most important economic information on Algeria at a glance, April 14, 2014
• Bayerische Landesbank, Country Analysis Algeria, January 2008 ( Memento from March 24, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
• Marion Mühlberger: Algeria: The resource-rich Mediterranean neighbor finds a new beginning, in: Börsenzeitung, March 31, 2008
• Hans Seidenstücker: First progress. In: MenaBusiness. 02/2008.

Economy (English and French speaking)

• International Monetary Fund: Algeria and the IMF
• World Bank: Country Brief Algeria
• World Bank: MENA Economic Developments and Prospects , June 2008
• African Development Bank / OECD: African Economic Outlook : Chapter Algeria; May 2008

Web links

Commons : Algeria  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Wikisource: Algeria  - Sources and full texts

Wiktionary: Algeria  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Wikimedia Atlas: Algeria  - geographical and historical maps

Wikivoyage: Algeria  - Travel Guide

• Presidency of the Republic of Algeria (Arabic, French)
• Prime Minister's Portal (Arabic, French)
• Library of Congress - Federal Research Division Country Profile: Algeria (PDF; 191 kB), May 2008
• Country overview Algeria on the website of the Federal Foreign Office
• Algeria country profile on BBC News (English)
• CIA World Factbook: Algeria (Retrieved January 10, 2009 )
• Key points of draft revised Constitution. In: aps.dz . Archived from the original on January 5, 2016 . 

Individual evidence

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2. ↑ Population growth (annual%). In: World Economic Outlook Database. World Bank , 2021, accessed July 18, 2021 . 
3. ↑ World Economic Outlook Database, October 2020 of the International Monetary Fund .
4. ↑ Table: Human Development Index and its components . In: United Nations Development Program (ed.): Human Development Report 2020 . United Nations Development Program, New York 2020, ISBN 978-92-1126442-5 , pp. 344 (English, undp.org [PDF]).
5. ↑ ^{a b} cf. Tamendawt s tmazight 2016 (Algerian constitution in Kabyle from 2016) and Tamendawt n Tagduda tazzayrit tamagdayt taɣerfant (Algerian constitution bilingual from 2020)
6. ↑ ^{a b} Axel Tschentscher: Algeria Index. In: servat.unibe.ch. University of Bern, accessed on March 16, 2019 (English). 
7. ↑ Der Große Brockhaus, 15th edition, Leipzig 1928
8. ↑ Demography. In: ons.dz. Archived from the original on November 13, 2018 ; Retrieved on May 16, 2019 (French, original not persistent; information based on archive version). 
9. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} CIA World Factbook: Algeria (accessed on January 10, 2009) (English)
10. ^ The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved August 3, 2017 . 
11. ^ Bernard A. Cook: Europe since 1945: an encyclopedia . Garland, New York 2001, ISBN 0-8153-4057-5 , pp. 398 .
12. ^ Turkish Embassy in Algeria: Cezayir Ülke Raporu 2008 . Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2008, p. 4 . online ( Memento from September 29, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
13. ^ The Report: Algeria 2008. Oxford Business Group, 2008, p. 10.
14. ↑ Sabri Hizmetli: Osmanlı Yönetimi Döneminde Tunus ve Cezayir'in Eğitim ve Kültür Tarihine Genel Bir Bakış. In: Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakanschesi Dergisi. Volume 32, 1953, p. 10.
15. ↑ Migration Report 2017. (PDF) UN, accessed on September 30, 2018 (English). 
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17. ^ La mondialisation, une chance pour la francophonie. Archived from the original on April 7, 2013 ; Retrieved on January 17, 2013 : “L'Algérie, non membre de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, comptabilise la seconde communauté francophone au monde, avec around 16 millions de locuteurs, suivie par la Côte d'Ivoire avec près de 12 millions de locuteurs francophones, le Québec avec 6 millions et la Belgique avec plus de 4 millions de francophones. " 
18. ↑ according to Article 3 of the state constitution, information from the Algerian embassy in Germany
19. ^ Website of the National People's Assembly : Law amendment April 10, 2002 , last checked May 14, 2011.
20. ^ Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages. Pew Research Center, December 28, 2012
21. ↑ Algeria. People and Society. The World Fact Book, data from 2012
22. ↑ (French) Christianity in Kabylia , see CRMarsh: Impossible for God? (Hänssler Verlag ³1991, ISBN 3-7751-0461-5 ) on the story of the missionary who founded the company.
23. ^ "Algeria: Facts - Figures - Links" ( Memento from January 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Network Africa, viewed on July 10, 2009.
24. ↑ Sabine Kebir : Dialectic of the veil. The example of Algeria. In: Edith Laudowicz (Ed.): Fatimas Töchter. Women in islam. PapyRossa, Cologne 1992 (= New Small Library. Volume 29), ISBN 3-89438-051-9 , pp. 162-180.
25. ↑ Meyer's Large Country Lexicon . Meyers Lexikonverlag, Mannheim 2004.
26. ↑ Algeria: Mission among Muslims is now a punishable offense. In: aidlr.org. April 10, 2006, archived from the original on June 14, 2007 ; accessed on January 8, 2020 . 
27. ↑ Background information
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30. ↑ Culture and Education. Retrieved July 12, 2017 . 
31. ^ PISA study - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved April 14, 2018 . 
32. ^ The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved July 12, 2017 . 
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34. ↑ Country Profile: Algeria. (PDF; 191 kB) lcweb2.loc.gov, accessed on September 19, 2010 . 
35. ↑ World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations. Retrieved July 15, 2017 . 
36. ↑ Bona, Algeria. World Digital Library , 1899, accessed September 25, 2013 . 
37. ^ Robert Davis: Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800 . Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, ISBN 978-0-333-71966-4 .
38. ^ Robert Davis: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast. Bbc.co.uk, archived from the original on April 25, 2011 ; accessed on October 29, 2020 . 
39. ↑ "After all, almost half of the land used still belonged in undivided ownership to the Arab-Kabyle tribes ... Just like the English in British India, the governors of Louis-Philip in Algeria declared the existence of entire sexes to be an" impossibility "... by decrees From the years 1830, 1831, 1841, 1844, 1845, 1846 these thefts of Arab gender lands were "legally" justified ... a "parforce" introduction of private property in a very short time, that was the openly stated purpose of the law, which the National Assembly in 1873 had worked out. "( Rosa Luxemburg : The accumulation of capital , 27th chapter: The fight against natural economy. Berlin 1913)
40. ↑ Michel Abitbol: Histoire des juifs . In: Marguerite de Marcillac (ed.): Collection tempus . No. 663. Editions Perrin, Paris 2016, ISBN 978-2-262-06807-3 , p. 473 ff.
41. ↑ Martin Evans: Algeria - France's undeclared war. Oxford 2012.
42. ↑ Mahfoud Bennoune: The Making of Contemporary Algeria 1830-1987. Cambridge, 1988, 2002, pp. 76-79.
43. ^ ^{A b} Eva Dingel: The Algerian Civil War 1992–2002: Background to a war without a name. 2004; weltpolitik.net .
44. ↑ ^{a b c d} Amnesty International: Algeria - Human Rights in Crisis
45. ^ Romain Leick: The Terror International: Algeria - Salafists and Gia fighters SPIEGEL special 2/2004 of June 29, 2004.
46. ^ Algeria - Bouteflika winner of the presidential election. In: faz.net . April 10, 2009, accessed July 6, 2020.
47. ↑ Bouteflika wins presidential election. In: dw-world.de . April 10, 2009, accessed October 26, 2020.
48. ^ Lifting of the state of emergency in Algeria .
49. ↑ Islamists attack BP location in Algeria T-online Nachrichten of January 16, 2012.
50. ^ Presidential election in Algeria. ( Memento from April 20, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) at tagesschau.de, April 18, 2012.
51. ^ Army promises to support the newly elected president. deutschlandfunk.de from December 15, 2019, accessed on December 17, 2019
52. ↑ IPU PARLINE database: ALGERIA (Al-Majlis Al-Chaabi Al-Watani), Last elections. Retrieved February 19, 2021 . 
53. ↑ Tebboune wants a fresh start for Algeria. In: Deutsche Welle. February 18, 2021, accessed on February 19, 2021 (German). 
54. ↑ ^{a b} - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved September 29, 2018 . 
55. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colo5ado, 2000, p. 5.
56. ^ Fragile States Index: Global Data. Fund for Peace , 2020, accessed January 15, 2021 . 
57. ^ Democracy Index. The Economist Intelligence Unit, accessed February 6, 2021 . 
58. ↑ Global Freedom Score. Freedom House , 2020, accessed January 15, 2021 . 
59. ↑ 2021 World Press Freedom Index. Reporters Without Borders , 2021, accessed July 18, 2021 . 
60. ^ Transparency International (Ed.): Corruption Perceptions Index . Transparency International, Berlin 2020, ISBN 978-3-96076-134-1 (English, transparencycdn.org [PDF]).
61. ↑ Business for German companies in Algeria. Transcript of an interview with Werner Ruf on Angela Merkel's visit to Algeria; the interview (no longer available online) was conducted by Marcel Müller for tagesschau.de on July 6, 2008. In: algeria-watch.org. December 13, 2009. Retrieved May 27, 2019 . 
62. ↑ Thomas Schiller: Country report - Algeria's difficult path to normality. (PDF; 47.9 KB) In: kas.de. Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, July 15, 2018, accessed on September 10, 2019 . 
63. ^ Transformation: Algeria. (No longer available online.) In: bti2003.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de. Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2003, archived from the original on October 25, 2007 ; accessed on June 6, 2020 . 
64. ↑ ^{a b} Algeria deporting - migrants exposed in the Sahara? In: tagesschau.de. June 25, 2018, archived from the original on June 25, 2018 ; accessed on December 16, 2019 . 
65. ↑ ^{a b} Lori Hinnant: Algeria with brutal deportation practice - forced march through the Sahara. In: taz.de. June 26, 2018. Retrieved September 5, 2018 . 
66. ↑ ^{a b} EU should have known about it - Pregnant women included: Algeria is said to have abandoned 13,000 refugees in the desert. In: focus.de. June 25, 2018. Retrieved November 17, 2019 . 
67. ^ UN Migration Agency “Greatly Concerned” by Reports of Migrants Stranded at Algeria-Niger Border. Press release. In: iom.int . June 26, 2018, accessed October 27, 2018 . 
68. ↑ Der Fischer Weltalmanach 2008 , Fischer Taschenbuch-Verlag, Frankfurt 2007, ISBN 978-3-596-72008-8 .
69. ↑ erwaertiges-amt.de
70. ↑ Euro-Mediterranean partnership. In: bpb.de . May 21, 2005, accessed May 30, 2020 . 
71. ↑ 10 years Algeria-EU Association Agreement: Insignificant Algerian exports to the EU. In: algerien-heute.de. June 22, 2016, accessed June 20, 2020 . 
72. ^ Algeria and the EU. In: eeas.europa.eu. Retrieved September 13, 2020 . 
73. ↑ European Union and Algeria agree priorities for their partnership. In: consilium.europa.eu. March 13, 2017, accessed September 28, 2020 . 
74. ↑ Morocco - Algeria: an arms race! In: Strategic Studies. June 27, 2016. Retrieved July 12, 2017 . 
75. ↑ Algeria: Foreign Policy. In: Auswaertiges-amt.de. June 20, 2019, accessed July 25, 2020 . 
76. ↑ Home | SIPRI. Retrieved July 10, 2017 . 
77. ^ Query Nuclear Explosions Database (Geoscience Australia) .
78. ^ Report of the fr. Ministry of Defense ( Memento from September 25, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
79. ↑ Bruno Barrillot: French Nuclear tests in the Sahara: Open the files . Guest Articles. In: Science for Democratic Action . tape 15 , no. 3 . Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, Takoma Park, Maryland April 2008, p. 10 ff . (English, ieer.org [PDF; 441 kB ; accessed on July 30, 2020]).
80. ↑ Private homepage
81. ^ The World Bank: Urban population
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83. ↑ reports.weforum.org
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85. ↑ Economy. Retrieved July 12, 2017 . 
86. ^ The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved August 6, 2018 . 
87. ↑ ^{a b c} Algeria: Algeria facts and figures. In: OPEC . Accessed November 16, 2020 . 
88. ^ ^{A b} Central Intelligence Agency - Directorate of Intelligence: Algeria: The Importance Of The Oil industry . October 1970, p. 2–6 (English, cia.gov [PDF; accessed November 16, 2020]).
89. ↑ ^{a b c} History of Sonatrach. In: International Directory of Company Histories. FundingUniverse, 2004, accessed November 16, 2020 . 
90. ↑ ^{a b} Algeria Hydrocarbon Laws. In: Department of Commerce - International Trade Administration. February 25, 2020, accessed November 16, 2020 . 
91. ^ Algeria's hydrocarbons law stimulates the projects sector. In: MEED. August 10, 2018, accessed November 16, 2020 . 
92. ^ The Algerian Hydrocarbons Regulations. In: CMS Law-Now. September 30, 2009, accessed November 16, 2020 . 
93. ↑ Algeria's Tenuous History in the Fossil Fuel Industry. In: FossilFuel.com. December 19, 2019, accessed November 16, 2020 (American English). 
94. ^ Felix Tsourakis: Algeria Oil Industry Overview. In: Algeria Oil & Gas Summit & Exhibition. March 19, 2019, accessed November 16, 2020 . 
95. ↑ Mostefa Ouki: Algerian gas in transition: domestic transformation and changing gas export potential . Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Oxford 2019, ISBN 978-1-78467-145-7 , doi : 10.26889 / 9781784671457 (English).
96. ^ ^{A b} Algerian Nuclear Power Program and Related I&C Activities. (PDF 7.6 MB, pp. 10, 17–18.) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), May 13, 2013, accessed on July 19, 2015 (English).  
97. ↑ ^{a b} Parc de Production National. www.mem-algeria.org, accessed on July 19, 2015 (French).  
98. ^ Evolution de la puissance maximal appelée sur le réseau interconnecté (PMA). www.mem-algeria.org, accessed on July 19, 2015 (French).  
99. ↑ Puissance Installée. Société Algérienne de Production de l'Electricité (SPE), accessed on 19 July 2015 (French).  
100. ↑ Energy produite. SPE, accessed July 19, 2015 (French).  
101. ^ GE and Sonelgaz Affiliate, SPE, Sign Contracts Valued at $ 2.7 Billion to Help Power Algeria. www.businesswire.com, September 23, 2013, accessed July 19, 2015 .  
102. ↑ Russia and Algeria have signed an agreement concerning the cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy. In: rosatom-centralasia.com. September 4, 2014, accessed September 13, 2019 .  
103. ^ Algeria may get Russian reactor. In: world-nuclear-news.org. September 4, 2014, accessed April 14, 2019 .  
104. ↑ MedRing: Building an interconnected system across three continents. In: globaltransmission.info. March 2, 2009, accessed October 4, 2019 .  
105. ↑ Jan Dodd: Algeria sets 5GW target for 2030. In: windpowermonthly.com . March 13, 2015, accessed October 7, 2020.
106. ↑ J. Antoñanzas among others, Towards the hybridization of gas-fired power plants: A case study of Algeria. In: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews . 51, (2015), 116-124, p. 117, doi: 10.1016 / j.rser.2015.06.019 .
107. ↑ ^{a b} GDP growth (annual%). Data, accessed January 13, 2018 (American English). 
108. ^ Algeria Youth Unemployment Rate. In: tradingeconomics.com. Accessed January 10, 2020 . 
109. ^ Report for Selected Countries and Subjects. Retrieved July 21, 2017 (American English). 
110. ↑ Der Fischer Weltalmanach 2010: Numbers data facts. Fischer, Frankfurt 2009, ISBN 978-3-596-72910-4 .
111. ^ "Liberté" Liberté, Algiers, August 28, 2007.
112. ↑ Information sheet - March 30 , 2009 "Certificat de contrôle de qualité de la marchandise" ( Memento from April 24, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) IHK Munich, accessed on August 27, 2010
113. ↑ GDP (current US $). Data, accessed January 13, 2018 (American English). 
114. ↑ GDP per capita (current US $). Data, accessed January 13, 2018 (American English). 
115. ↑ ^{a b} Economic data compact - Algeria. (PDF) Retrieved January 13, 2018 . 
116. ^ See website of the Société Nationale des Transports Ferroviaires algériens (SNTF). Archived from the original on October 3, 2011 ; Retrieved March 8, 2011 (French). 
117. ↑ Stadler-FLIRT in Algeria. In: bahnaktuell.net. May 11, 2009. Retrieved August 17, 2018 . 
118. ↑ Algeria starts building a second east-west highway through the entire Algerian highlands. In: algerien-heute.com . February 10, 2014, accessed July 13, 2020.
119. ↑ Abdelnour Keramane: Energy Infrastructures in the Mediterranean: Fine Accomplishments but No Global Vision . In: IEMed Mediterranean Yearbook 2014 . S. 296 f . (English, iemed.org [PDF; accessed on November 16, 2020]).
120. ^ ^{A b} Thomas Urban: Energy: Natural gas from the Sahara for Europe. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung . June 16, 2014, accessed November 16, 2020 . 
121. ↑ Patrick Heather: "A hub for Europe": The Iberian promise? Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Oxford March 2019, pp. 4 , doi : 10.26889 / 9781784671327 (English, oxfordenergy.org [accessed on November 16, 2020]).
122. ↑ Patrick Heather: "A hub for Europe": The Iberian promise? Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Oxford March 2019, pp. 7 , doi : 10.26889 / 9781784671327 (English, oxfordenergy.org [accessed on November 16, 2020]).
123. ↑ Christopher Coats: Galsi Pipeline Suffers What Could be Final Blow. In: Forbes.com . Accessed November 16, 2020 . 
124. ↑ Roseline Okere: $ 12b trans-Saharan gas project to miss 2018 deadline. In: The Guardian Nigeria. March 13, 2018, accessed November 16, 2020 . 
125. ↑ Sandra Kegel: Peace Prize Winner Boualem Sansal - I write against the deadly silence. In: faz.net. September 23, 2011, accessed June 9, 2020 . 
126. ↑ radioalgerie.dz. Retrieved January 5, 2019 (Arabic, French). 

Coordinates: 27 °  N , 3 °  E