Medicine in Jewish Culture
The medicine in Jewish culture since the modern era Early cultural object and medical historical research. There is an independent tradition of healing knowledge within Jewish sacred literature, especially in the Torah and Talmud . Jewish doctors , scientists and translators also made an important contribution to the transmission of medical knowledge of antiquity , especially the works of Greek and Roman doctors, into medicine in the medieval Islamic world . In the medieval European medicine played Jewish doctors also play an important role and were their names - as well as their assigned medication (for example, since the end of the 14th century very popular "Jews patches") - as effective advertising reference, especially in the late medieval medicine and pharmacy.
In the cultural change, especially of German Jewry as a result of the Enlightenment (Haskala), the exercise of the sciences, especially the medical profession, was of great importance for the acculturation of Jews into Christian bourgeois society. Of rabbis , some of which operated the healing profession, part of the debate was the modernization of Judaism and its integration into the Christian bourgeois society on medical field out. The medical tradition in Judaism continues in modern times: 28% of the winners of the Nobel Prize for Medicine are Jews or of Jewish descent. The correct definition of “Jewish medicine” is also controversial in current research, as specifically religious and general social and political aspects cannot be clearly separated methodologically.
Research history and current focus of research
The first systematic studies of Jewish medicine appeared in the early 17th century, but with the exception of Benjamin Gintzburger's dissertation (1743) mostly dealt only with the Old and New Testaments . It was not until the 19th century that the Talmud and other ancient Hebrew scriptures were included in research. The work of Julius Preuss on biblical-Talmudic medicine is of particular importance for the history of research.
In the past, research has mostly focused on describing the merits of Jewish doctors in medical science or on anti-Jewish behavior in the non-Jewish environment. In recent times the research interest has increasingly focused on the question of the extent to which the Jewish cultural background had an influence on the medical practice or scientific work of Jewish doctors. Although this question can occasionally be answered with regard to the biography of individual doctors, a generally applicable and methodologically clear answer has not yet been found despite numerous attempts, as there is hardly any precise distinction between specifically "Jewish" and more general social and political circumstances of the respective time can.
Another current topic is the research of historical or current statements on the more frequent or rarer occurrence of certain diseases in people of Jewish origin, combined with statements on how the body is perceived by others or by others. This has been discussed repeatedly by both Jews and non-Jews from the early modern period to the present day. On the one hand, social or social statistical approaches were pursued, and in the course of increasing anti-Semitism since the end of the 19th century, racist stereotypes with the aim of exclusion, which as such are also the subject of research.
A third research area includes religious-ritual practices in connection with medicine and health. From the 18th century onwards, historical discussions focused on rites such as the Brit Mila , the circumcision of male infants on the eighth day after birth, the quick burial of the dead before sunset, the ritual bath ( mikveh ) and the dietary rules . These internal Jewish debates were central to the question of the modernization of Jewish identity ( Haskala ), especially in the debate about the self-image as a people , nation or religion .
Medical traditions in the Torah and Talmud
No medical treatises have survived from the early period. Our knowledge of the medicine of this time comes from the scriptures and the history or law books. The information is sparse and its meaning is often unclear. The tradition only becomes clearer with the writing of the Talmud in the 5th century.
In the course of their long history, the Jews came into close contact with a wide variety of peoples. The assumption that the medical knowledge of the Jews was derived from the Egyptians was refuted by the research of Preuss in 1911. Assyrian-Babylonian and Greco-Alexandrian influences, on the other hand, played an important role; This becomes clear in the use of Greek terms for diseases in the Talmud. In contrast to the highly specialized Egyptian medicine, the Jewish doctor was generally general practitioner and surgeon rolled into one. In the Book of Psalms ( Ps 147.3 EU ), God is the healer, “who heals those who are broken in heart and binds up their wounds”. The Hebrew word for doctor is רופא "rophe", derived from "alleviate", "make bearable". Within the medical profession, “tried” or “experienced”, ie possibly “licensed” doctors were known, and it was taught that only competent doctors were allowed to treat patients so that “the healer does not become the murderer”. The biblical sentence in 2nd Book of Moses ( Ex 21.19 EU ) that atoned for an injury and that those who have injured another have to ensure the complete recovery of the injured person made medical care compulsory. The teachings of the Talmud viewed health care and the healing of illnesses as particularly important duties, and even allow other commandments, such as the sabbath rest , to be violated when the well-being of a sick person was concerned. In addition to doctors, there were also specialists in bloodletting , midwives and circumcisers ( mohel ). Rabbis were not doctors, but they had an official role in overseeing leprosy . The Hebrew word ẓaraʿat ( צָרָ֫עַת) was translated into Greek in the Septuagint as leprosy, although in Hebrew it referred to various other skin diseases such as psoriasis in addition to the skin symptoms of "speckled lepra" and the symptoms of "tuberous lump" ( elephantia ) . It has been suggested that some of the biblical prophets (Elisha, Isaiah) had medical knowledge, but none of them were designated as physicians. There were also regulations in the event of error or malpractice .
The doctor was held in high regard in the Old Testament. This is shown in Jesus Sirach , chapter 38:
“Honor the doctor with due admiration that you have him in need; 2 for the Lord created him, and the medicine comes from the Most High, and kings honor him. 3 The doctor's art exalts him and makes him great among princes and lords. 4 The Lord makes medicine grow out of the earth, and one who is reasonable does not despise it. 5 The bitter water was made sweet through a wood, so that one might know its strength. (Exodus 15.25) 6 And he gave men such art that he would be praised in his marvelous works. 7 With this he heals and removes pain; and the pharmacist makes medicine out of it. "
The Bible also shows the existence of incurable diseases:
"The Lord will strike you with the glands of Egypt, with genital warts, with scabs and scabies, so that you cannot be healed."
Likewise, one could not be sure whether the treatment methods were really helpful or not more harmful, which was expressed in the Qiddushin mixed natractic as follows:
"Even the best doctor goes to hell."
anatomy
The anatomical knowledge was gained from the physical examination of the intact body as well as from the study of the organs of slaughtered animals , as well as from the examination of injured people. Autopsy was not performed because it was viewed as disrespect for the dead. But there is a report according to which students of Rabbi Ishmael "boiled a corpse to examine and count the bones."
The Talmud reports on the doctor Schulim Abi Todos , a forerunner of a forensic doctor , on whose expertise the Talmudic sages were based. It so happened that a container of bones was brought into a house of prayer. Todos examined the bones together with other doctors and found that they were human remains, which, however, could not be from a single corpse, but must have come from several dead ( Nasir 52a).
Brit Mila
Circumcision ( Hebrew ברית מילה Brit Mila ) is ultimately a medical procedure, namely the removal of the foreskin of the male member ( circumcision ) according to Jewish custom . It is carried out by a mohel , the circumciser, who was trained in the practice of the Brit Mila. Circumcision is the first commandment that the progenitor Abraham received from God. The Brit Mila is one of the most important commandments in Judaism (Gen. 17:10).
hygiene
The 3rd book of Mose (13.1 ff. LUT ) gives precise instructions for the diagnosis of leprosy (zaraath) and demands the consequent temporary or, if the diagnosis is confirmed, permanent isolation of the sick as well as the thorough cleaning of their houses. According to Karl Sudhoff , this was the most important achievement of Jewish medicine from the perspective of medical history, since the concept of the transferability of infectious diseases was unknown in ancient medicine. From the biblical rules for dealing with lepers, rules for the control and disinfection of incoming ships were initially developed in Mediterranean port cities such as Venice and Marseille as a result of the plague epidemics of the 14th century . When the " Black Death " (plague) raged and swept away about a third of the population, the Jews were accused of poisoning the wells - even though they drank from the same wells and springs. The persecution of Jews at the time of the Black Death by slandering the Jews as well poisoners led to the murder of the Jews in the Jewish communities of Central Europe, also in 1349 in Würzburg, where the ghetto was burned down, and in Frankfurt in the pogrom of 1349 . Around 300 Jewish communities in Germany were completely destroyed at that time.
Leopold Zunz quotes from the 15th century “Sittenbuch” :
“A good quality is cleanliness. Clothes, bed, table and table utensils, especially food, everything in general that we have in hand is clean; the body, primarily that is created in God's image, must never be dirty. "
In the Sefer Hasidim, a halachic text from the twelfth century attributed to Rabbi Juda ben Samuel from Regensburg, and the accompanying commentaries, it says that "someone who has an infectious disease must inform his fellow men about it" (Makor Hesed, Sefer Hasidim, 673 , 4). Transferred to the present day, if one sees the halacha as an ethical guide, for example the use of a corona warning app in the case of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is ethically necessary - also or precisely because it is less for self-protection, but an instrument for Protection of others is ( Pikuach Nefesch ).
Purity laws
The purity laws from the 3rd book of Moses contain the obligation to wash the hands of Netilat Jadajim (נטילת ידיים), for example, before meals, after having been to the toilet, up to four cubits approaching a corpse, after getting up, after the hair - or nail cutting, after touching his shoes and much more. Before the ritual cleansing bath ( Hebrew טבילה Tevila ) in the mikveh (מִקְוֶה) the entire body must be washed, because dirt would prevent the water of the subsequent ritual cleansing bath from reaching all parts of the body without exception, if some are covered with dirt. The purity laws were strictly observed as divine commandments. They provided detailed instructions on how to deal with diseases and how to prevent them. Isolating contagious patients and disinfecting the objects they touch, for example, reduced the spread of epidemics . Hospitals emerged to isolate the sick. Deuteronomy obliges everyone to clean up their dirt again. The presence of God is incompatible with dirt and stench. Overall, it was not a question of hygiene regulations, but rather a cultic purity should be established, which ultimately ensured hygiene and cleanliness that were unusual outside of Judaism at that time.
Diet laws
The Jewish dietary laws (Hebrew כַּשְרוּת kashrut, 3rd Book of Moses (chap. 11)) differentiate between permitted and prohibited animals, contain the strict prohibition of the consumption of blood, write the temporal separation of consumption from "meaty" (Hebrew: בשרי basari ) and "Milky" (Hebrew: חלבי chalawi ) dishes ("You should not boil a kid in its mother's milk", Deut. 14, 21b) and contain numerous detailed restrictions. Research has now established that the rite of the indigenous Canaana population of Palestine was to boil the kid in its mother's milk. The Hebrew cult therefore prescribed the exact opposite in order to guarantee a complete separation from the original religion of the country.
Orthodox households have a kitchen with a separate sink and stove so that milky and meaty dishes can be prepared separately. Since you are not allowed to eat meat and dairy products together, there are also different dishes for meat and dairy dishes. Devout Jews who wear full dentures as dentures sometimes have two pairs of dentures made in order to be able to use a separate denture for each of the two types of food. Most rabbinical authorities , however, take the view that this is not necessary. Large animals can be eaten if they have split hooves and belong to the ruminants group (Deut. 14.3-21a). For example, only fish are allowed that are enabled by their fins and scales to move more easily in the water, while the flesh of the cartilaginous fish quickly decays. Birds are allowed with various exceptions such as vultures , buzzards , owls , herons and others. The ban on mussels , reptiles , crabs , oysters , carrion and the like reduced the risk of infection (e.g. hepatitis ). In the numerous lymph glands of the (forbidden) abdominal fat - favored by the proximity of the intestine - pathogens accumulate easiest; also think of trichinae in pork . The reason that pork cannot be kept in hot climates was not the reason. It is more likely that the pig was the preferred sacrificial animal in many cultures . Since all battles in antiquity belonged to the religious realm of sacrifice, such a ban drew a clear dividing line from pagan cults. The dietary laws were also religious regulations derived from the Torah and not measures to prevent disease , although they had a corresponding effect. The dietary laws are thus raised to a sacred area and given a spiritual dimension. Your goal is not to heal the body, but rather that of the soul. In biblical times, bacteria , viruses, and other pollutants were unknown. The health "side effect" of religious regulations was only recognized in modern times.
Apartment cleaning
In preparation for the Sabbath , the house is cleaned. The festival of Passover contributes most to the cleanliness of the Jewish home . The cleaning procedures that the woman carries out on her apartment with all its accessories before Passover is compared with the procedures for disinfecting the apartment, as prescribed by modern hygiene after an infectious disease. The aim is to completely remove chametz (leavened bread) in the apartment down to the last crumb, the consumption of which, and even its possession, is forbidden during the Passover festival. However, this is only possible with a perfect cleaning procedure, which can take a whole week for the kitchen alone. This is also provided with quality assurance: The man has to check the result. To do this, he hides a tiny piece of bread in a particularly difficult hiding place and checks whether this has actually been found and removed after the woman's cleaning efforts. This takes place ritually in the light of a candle, whereby every corner of the apartment is searched for remaining Chametz.
Diseases
Numerous diseases are mentioned in the Bible, including shaḥefet - tuberculosis (Lev. 26:16); ʿAfolim - leishmaniasis (Deut. 28:27); yerakon - jaundice (Deut. 28:22); sheḥin pore'aḥ aʾvʿabuʾot - pemphigus (Ex. 9: 9); zav - leucorrhea (Lev. 15); those - plague (Deut. 28:21); shivron motnayim - lumbago (Ezek. 21:11); nofel ve-galui ʿenayim - epilepsy (Num. 24: 4); rekav ʿaẓamot - osteomyelitis (Prov. 14:30). In addition, there are eye and skin diseases and other infectious diseases.
Therapies
Like most large text collections, the Old Testament also contains medical aspects. “God brings out remedies from the earth, the discerning one does not despise them” (Sir 38.4). Several medicinal plants are listed in it.
In the 2nd Book of Kings (around 700 BC) it says:
“When Elisha came into the house, the child was dead on his bed. He went into the room, closed the door behind him and the child, and prayed to the Lord. Then he went to the bed and threw himself over the child; he put his mouth on his mouth, his eyes on his eyes, his hands on his hands. As he stretched out over the child, warmth came into his body. The boy snorted seven times; then the boy opened his eyes. "
According to the common beliefs of ancient medicine, an excess of blood or contamination of the blood could be the cause of various diseases. With the development of the Greek doctrine of the four juices by Galen , bloodletting became part of the range of therapies. But it was also expressly warned of the associated dangers. After being veined, one should not engage in physical activity. however, have a meal or warm up if necessary (Shabbat 129a). The bloodletting is also carried out at most every 30 days (Shabbat 129b). Maimonides restricted bloodletting to a maximum of two times a year, whereby people over 50 years of age should never be bled at all. ( Hilchot Deot 4:18; ( Hebrew הִלְכּוֹת דְּעוֹת))
The Talmudic scholar who also worked as a doctor was, for example, Schmu'el. Since then, a very early forerunner of today's ultra-modern colonoscopy capsule has been known, although apparently not available to everyone, namely the Turemita egg ( Hebrew ביצה טורמיטא). It was an egg that had been reduced in size in a highly complicated cooking process so that it could be swallowed whole. You have to immerse it a thousand times in hot water and a thousand times in cold water. Schmu'el assessed the production, according to which a slave who could make a turemita egg was worth 1,000 dinars . In addition, the egg was so firm that the body excreted it undigested. Then you can examine the egg to see what traces it had taken up on its migration through the gastrointestinal tract. This would give the doctor valuable information for the further treatment of his patient ( Talmud - Gemara : Nedarim 50b).
Attitude to the disabled
In ancient times, deaf people were viewed as helpless idiots who were punished by the gods for the sins of their parents. The Taygetos Mountains served as a place of death for weak children from Sparta. The fathers of children born with defects were obliged to throw them into a crevice in the mountain range near what is now Sparta . In Rome they were drowned in the Tiber , which dragged on until the time of the church father Augustine of Hippo (354-430). The Talmud differed significantly from this. Already Moses is said to have said: "Do not curse the deaf and dumb, do not put an obstacle before the blind and fear your God." (Lev. 19, 14) Solomon the Wise (10th century BC) also explains: “Open your mouth for the mute and for the cause of all who are forsaken” - Proverbs Solomon 31: 8. In addition, from the Proverbs of the Fathers (1: 2): “The world rests on three pillars: the Torah ( Hebrew תּוֹרָה), the Avodah ( Hebrew עבודה 'Work' , 'prayer', 'sacrificial service') and the Zedaka ( Hebrew צְדָקָה 'The obligation to charity' ) ”. A humane attitude runs through the entire history.
Jewish doctors of antiquity
The first known medical work in the Hebrew language is the Sefer Refuot ( Hebrew ספר רפואות), The Book of Remedies , or Sefer Asaph ( Hebrew ספר אסף), Das Buch Asaph , attributed to Asaph ben Verhiahu and Johanan ben Zabda, who both lived in the Middle East in the 5th century AD. The book compiles excerpts from classical Hebrew texts, provided with comments and excerpts by pagan authors. It also contains the " Oath of Assaf ", a medical code of conduct similar to the oath of Hippocrates .
Jewish doctors had an excellent reputation and practiced in the then known civilized world. A famous physician and anatomist educated in Alexandria , Theudas from Laodikeia on Lykos , is mentioned in Bekhorot (4: 4). Aulus Cornelius Celsus wrote about ointments from experienced Jewish doctors in the first century. Galen von Pergamon reports from the first two centuries about the Jewish doctor Rufus Samaritanus in Rome. Marcellus Empiricus , Aëtios of Amida and Paulos of Aegina expressed themselves in a similarly positive manner . Pliny mentions a Babylonian doctor Zechariah who dedicated his medical book to King Mithridates . The emperor Antoninus Pius (86–161) asked Rabbi Juda ha-Nasi to provide medical care for his house slaves. The personal physician of Basil the Great (300) was Ephraim . Bishop Gelasius refers to his Jewish doctor Telesinus and describes him as a "trustworthy friend". The study of medicine was part of the curriculum in the Talmudic schools and many Talmudic scholars were also doctors. Among them were Rabbi Ishmael , Rabbi Hanina Ben Dosa , Rabbi Hananiah Ben Hama , Joseph ha-Rofe of Gamla , Tobia ha-Rofe of Modiin, and Minjoni (Benjamin). The most distinguished of them was Samuel Ben Abba ha-Kohen , also called Mar Samuel Yarḥina'ah (165-257), to whom many remedies and anatomical knowledge go back. He was the personal physician of the Persian King Shapur I (240-272). In addition, the Talmud mentions Askan bi-Devarim , who was concerned with the study of human and animal anatomy and physiology .
Jewish Doctors in Medieval Islamic Society
As dhimmi , Jews (and Christians) enjoyed a special legal status in Islam that enabled them to integrate into the newly emerging Islamic society after the Islamic expansion . Jewish doctors, trained in the Hellenistic School of Alexandria or in the Persian Academy of Gundishapur , played an important role as mediators of medical knowledge. One of the first books to be translated from the Greek original into Syrian and then into Arabic by the Jewish scholar Māsarĝawai al-Basrĩ at the time of the fourth Umayyad caliph Marwan I was the medical compendium Kunnāš by Aaron of Alexandria from the 6th century . The Abbasid Calife al-Mansūr founded the House of Wisdom in Baghdad in 825 , to which an academy and a hospital were attached. The historian Ibn al-Qifti narrated that at the time the house was built, 37 Christians, 8 Sabaeans and 9 Jews worked there.
Compared to the academic medical training at Christian-oriented Central European universities, the training of Jewish doctors in the Middle Ages was based primarily on practical aspects of the art of healing, supplemented by the study of Hebrew and also Arabic specialist literature.
The first scientific work printed in Hebrew was around 1492 the Canon of Medicine of Avicenna, which was translated from Arabic into Hebrew in the 13th century .
Chasdai ibn Shaprut
Chasdai ibn Schaprut (Hebrew: חסדאי אבן שפרוט, Arabic: حسداي بن شبروط; around 915 - around 970) was the personal physician of the caliph Abd ar-Rahman III. in Al-Andalus . Towards the end of the 940s he was a member of a group of translators that translated the pharmaceutical - pharmacological work of Dioskorides from Greek into Arabic. Abd ar-Rahman entrusted Chasdai with administrative offices and diplomatic missions. When Abbot Johannes von Gorze was in Córdoba as emissary of King Otto I in 953 , Chasdai led the negotiations. Johann later wrote that he had "never seen a man of such a fine mind as the Jew Hasdeu". In 956 he was sent to the court of the King of León with a Muslim envoy to negotiate peace with him. The high point of his diplomatic activities was his mission to the royal court of Navarre . There he healed Sancho I (935–966), King of León. Chasdai managed to convince the Christian king of a peace treaty with the caliph, which was viewed as an important diplomatic achievement. Chasdai also held senior positions within the Jewish population in Spain. He appointed the refugee Moses ben Chanoch Rabbi of Cordoba. Under his leadership, Spanish Judaism broke away from the leadership of the Babylonian Geonim .
Isaak ben Solomon Israeli (Isaak Judäus)
A famous Jewish doctor was Isaak ben Salomon Israeli (840/50 - around 932), who lived in Egypt and wrote Arabic. His book on the mind and soul deals with philosophical as well as medical questions. Between philosophy and medicine, there is also a text on medical ethics ( leadership of doctors ) attributed to Isaac , which has been handed down in Hebrew translation ( Musar ha-Rofe'im ). Based on the Corpus Hippocraticum , Isaac's authorship has been considered dubious since it was contested by Jakob Guttmann in 1919 .
The Book of Fevers ( Kitāb al-ḥummayāt ) is considered Isaac's most important medical work. It is the oldest Arabic treatise on the subject. The general fever theory is dealt with first; This is followed by the “day fever”, the “hectic” fever ( febris hectica , eating fever, especially with consumption or tuberculosis ), the acute fever with its accompanying symptoms (including “madness”) and the lazy fever , to which Isaac also counts the plague . The presentation is based on the ancient fever theory, but Isaac also brings in numerous references that come from his personal experience.
Other influential works by Isaac are his urinary tract ( book on urine ; Arabic Kitāb al-baul , Latin liber de urinis ) and the book on dietetics ( Kitāb al-aġḏiya ). The urine book provides instructions on urine diagnosis; The essence of urine as well as its different colors, substances and sediments and their diagnostic meaning are discussed . The book on dietetics is divided into a theoretical part and a special part, in which a number of foods are discussed. Because of this structure, the title of the Latin translation is Liber diaetarum universalium et particularium ( book on general and special diets ). Only the titles of some other works have survived, including an introduction to the art of medicine and a book on the pulse . Isaak's work also found its way into German-language medical literature of the Middle Ages in various ways from around 1250.
Moses Maimonides
Moses Maimonides (also Moses ben Maimon) received his medical training in Fez . In his treatise on asthma he describes conversations with the Jewish doctor Abu Yusuf ibn Mu'allim and with Muhammad, son of the scholar Avenzoar , who taught medicine to Averroes . Maimonides was familiar with Arabic translations of the classical writings of Greek medicine and obtained summaries of some of the writings of Arabic doctors himself.
That Maimonides enjoyed a high reputation as a doctor in Muslim circles, among other things, from the writings of the scholars Ibn Abi Usaibia (1203-1270) and Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi , who visited Maimonides in 1201 in Cairo.
Maimonides distinguished three areas of medicine: preventive medicine , the actual medicine and the care of the convalescent , the elderly and the disabled. His teaching is based on the ancient humoral pathology as represented by Hippocrates and Galenus . He emphasizes the rational character of medicine and expressly opposes the use of incantations and amulets in the treatment of the sick. In his treatise on asthma , Maimonides emphasizes that the doctor, with the help of the art, logic and intuition he has learned, must gain a comprehensive view of the patient in order to be able to make a diagnosis.
Maimonides wrote ten medical treatises in Arabic:
- Sharh fusul Abuqrat , a commentary on the Corpus Hippocraticum .
- Muchtasarat li-kutub Galinus , a collection of excerpts from Galen's writings.
- Kitab fusul Musa , a compilation of around 1500 aphorisms, mostly excerpts from Galen, but also with their own thoughts.
- Fi tadbir as-sihha , a regimen sanitatis , written for the Emir of Damascus Ali al-Malik al-Afdal Nur .
- Maqala fi bayan al-a'rad wa-l-jawab 'anha , a letter to the Emir al-Afdal, in which Maimonides addresses his master's complaints and shows possibilities of healing.
- Maqala fi r-rabw , on asthma .
- Maqala fi l-bawasir , on hemorrhoids .
- Kitab fi l-jima ' , on sexual intercourse .
- Kitab as-sumum , on poisons and their antidotes.
- Sharh asma 'al-'uqqar , a list in which the names of around 2000 remedies are arranged according to their Arabic, Greek, Persian, Spanish and Berber names, without a more detailed description being given.
Some of the writings of Maimonides, including the main philosophical work Leader of the Undecided , were translated from Arabic into Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon .
Jewish Doctors in Medieval Society in Europe
Shabbtai Donnolo
The first great doctor after Asaph to write medical treatises in Hebrew was the Italian doctor Shabbtai Donnolo (913 - after 982). In his day the medical schools of Palermo, Tarento and Bari already existed. He wrote a treatise "On Drugs" ( Sefer ha-Jaqar ), also called "Precious Book". His models were Asaph and Dioscorides .
Jewish city and personal physicians
In the 9th century the Jew Zedekias was the personal physician of Charles II (called the Bald). Due to his extensive knowledge, Zedekias was also suspected as a magician or sorcerer. The personal physicians of the Roman Catholic clergy for the 12th to 15th centuries were Josua (employed by Archbishop Bruno von Bretten ) in Trier, Master Simon (the personal physician of Boemund II who also worked in Trier ) and around 1407 Seligmann ("Selkman") ) from Mergentheim (who took care of the Würzburg bishop Johann I von Egloffstein ). The surgeon and moneylender Jakob von Landshut around 1368 can also be identified as personal physician, namely of Duke Stephan in Bavaria, who, in contrast to other personal physicians of his time, was still strongly guided by magical-mantic ideas. Otherwise, for example, the medical texts of the Jewish doctors working on Lake Constance and Upper Rhine in the pharmaceutical field since the 14th century clearly show (Salernitan) conventional medical content
There were also Jewish healers who worked in the border area between traditional and folk medicine. For example , the lay doctor Meyer Judaeus, who worked as a surgeon in the Würzburg monastery in the 15th century . He used moist compresses to treat pain and swelling.
Exercising both as a personal physician and as a surgeon was rarely found in the 14th century. But also in the case of the rabbi-doctor Hesse ("Hirsch"), the so-called "Juden von Salms" (* around 1360, probably in a county of Salm ), who worked for Count Johann von Sponheim, who was also verifiable as a medical writer and translator this combination of internal and surgical knowledge and their application.
As city doctors ( Physici ) paid by the city , who were often in high regard and were exempt from a general “Jewish tax” during their term of office, several Jewish doctors, for example for Frankfurt am Main, can be proven: From 1373 Jakob von Strasbourg practiced this Office off; it was followed by Isaac Friedrich in 1378 and Salomon Pletsch in 1394 . Isaac , who mainly worked as an ophthalmologist, was employed there as a town doctor from 1398 to 1410.
In the 16th century Meyer Levi worked in Kreuznach as a drug dealer and his son Isaak Levi (Ysack Leuj), probably a practicing doctor, wrote or compiled medical writings that were published by Count Palatine Ludwig V. In his “book” the Kreuznach Jew passed on the contents of Macer floridus , the Silesian Bartholomäus , Nicolaus Salernitanus , Rasis and the signs of the death of a Jewish doctor named Marquardt von Stadtkyll, who probably came from the Eifel.
In 1530, Emperor Charles V decreed that all Jews had to identify themselves with a yellow ring on their clothing. The implementation of this law took place regionally in different ways. In 1570, the Marburg doctor Georg Marius demanded that this also apply in the large imperial places and for Jewish doctors. The doctor and humanist Johann Crato von Krafftheim also joined this as advocate for the Frankfurt city doctors .
Salerno School
According to legend, the school of Salerno was founded by four people: Elisäus (also: Helinus) the Jew, Pontus the Greek, Salernus the Latin and Abdel the Arab. Benjamin von Tudela reports in his travel book that he visited Salerno in 1260. Only 600 Jews lived there; he reports nothing of the presence of a doctor.
However, in the 13th century a Jewish woman Rebekka is said to have received her doctorate in Salerno, who - as one of the first women doctors ever - taught and wrote, among other things, treatises on fever and urination.
Montpellier School
As early as the 10th century, an intensive exchange of medical knowledge took place in Montpellier . In 1180, William VIII of Montpellier allowed medicine to be practiced and taught there. Cardinal Konrad, a legate of Pope Honorius III. , founded the first medical school in France in Montpellier in 1220. In the 13th century, Rabbi Moise ben Nahman (1195–1270) taught there, in the 14th century Jacob-Haqatan, of which a medical manuscript is preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France , Bonet ben Meshullam ben Salomon Abigdor Harofe and Jakob ibn Tibbon .
Prohibition of the treatment of Christians in canon law
Gregory of Tours narrated the story of an archdeacon Leonastis from Bourges in 576 , who, after his miraculous cure from blindness in the cathedral of St. Martin of Tours , had himself treated by a Jewish doctor with cupping heads , whereupon he lost his sight again. His renewed prayer to St. Martin no longer helped, since after the divine miracle he had consulted a Jewish doctor.
Since the High Middle Ages, non-Christians have been repeatedly and repeatedly forbidden to practice medicine. After the Albigensian Crusade was over, it was ordered at the Synod of Toulouse in 1229 (can. 15) that anyone suspected of heresy should not practice the medical profession. At the Synod of Béziers in 1246 Christians were forbidden to treat a heretic (can. 12) or to consult a Jewish doctor (can. 43). In 1322 the synod of Valladolid again forbade calling Jewish or Saracen doctors to see Christians (can. 23). The reason given was that these doctors had often prescribed harmful medication to Christian patients out of hatred. At the same time it was established that this prohibition had already been violated many times, so that church penalties were threatened in the event of renewed violations. In 1335 the Synod of Rouen reaffirmed the ban.
Illness is not a punishment from God
Rood screen painting of the alleged ritual murder of William of Norwich in the Church of Holy Trinity, Loddon (Norfolk) 15th century.
In the 4th century, representatives of early Christianity , who saw a disease as a punishment from God, rejected the use of opium as an analgesic to relieve the pain of an illness, which was common and learned from antiquity to modern times . Charlemagne signed a decree in 810 to restrict the excessive use of opium. Judaism, on the other hand, does not see illness as a punishment from God, which is why one could also seek medical help, including the administration of painkillers.
Ritual murder legend
The Christian ritual murder legend , according to which Jews supposedly needed the blood of Christian children, among other things for medical purposes, first appeared in 1144 in Norwich, England, with William of Norwich . The anti-Judaist legend came from England via Spain and France to the German-speaking area (13th century). Allegations of ritual murder first affected Jews in Lauda and Fulda in 1234/1235 . The legend of the ritual murder migrated from German-speaking countries to Italy , Poland (which was countered with the Kalisch statute ) and Lithuania (15th century), and finally to Russia (18th century), to the Ottoman Empire (19th century) with the Damascus affair and to Greece with the Rhodian ritual murder legend . It outlasted the Age of Enlightenment and experienced a new upswing in Central and Eastern Europe from 1800 to 1914 , parallel to anti-Semitism . Corresponding charges usually ended in massacres of the accused, their families and communities.
Jewish women doctors in the Middle Ages
Numerous female healers can be documented as early as the Middle Ages and the early modern period. On May 2, 1419, for example, the Jewish doctor Sarah received a permit from the Würzburg bishop Johann II von Brunn to carry out her activities in the entire diocese of Würzburg , which was thus about a May 11, 1415 by Pope Benedict XIII. written bull overruled. She did that quite successfully. She was also granted a right to use the goods of Friedrich von Riedern zu Lauda by a district court judgment. More "Jewish doctors" who (as Jewish ophthalmologists especially in the high and late Middle Ages used) could cure especially eye condition, were acting in Frankfurt in 1430 Zerlina and in 1450 Ghele in Cologne. In Günzburg , the Jewish woman Morada practiced as a “doctor of the fine arts of medicine”.
Medicine and Judaism in Germany after the Enlightenment
In the early modern period up to the middle of the 17th century there was still frequent negative attitudes towards Jewish doctors and these were also associated with untrained healers by representatives of the medical profession, the period of the Enlightenment in the history of ideas paved the way , also intellectually shaped by Jewish philosophers like Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786), the way for Jewish emancipation or Haskala , the equal entry of Jews into the civil society of the Christian majority. In this complex historical process between Jewish culture and modernizing society, participation in science, especially the scientific-professional attitude of the medical profession, was of great importance for the self-image of liberal Jews and Jewish enlightenmentists (Maskilim).
18th century
In the last third of the 17th century, the first Jews were able to enroll at German-speaking universities, but initially had to confine themselves to the philosophical and medical faculties. Previously, Jews were not allowed to study at universities in Germany and, with a few exceptions such as Padua, they had not been allowed to study at other European universities either. Founded in 1737, the University of Göttingen was a product of enlightenment thoughts, namely the desire to break free from scholastic and clerical constraints, at the same time it was a result of the appreciation of free speech and useful science. The Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg and the Georg-August University of Göttingen were prime examples of reform universities of the Enlightenment period, which was also reflected in the fact that from the beginning students were accepted and were able to do their doctorates regardless of their religion, including Jews . The students' religious beliefs were not even noted in the register. As a result, the number of practicing Jewish doctors increased rapidly, especially in the cities.
The story of the Jewish doctors by Wolff (2014) was worked out using the city of Berlin as an example : The Jewish community in Berlin was newly founded in the course of the great elector’s policy of peuplication , albeit with limited rights. The emancipation of the Jews introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte was reversed after the Wars of Liberation . A Jewish doctor named Loebel was found in Berlin in the 1690s. In 1756 the first building of the still existing Jewish hospital in Berlin was opened. From 1765, Jewish doctors are mentioned in the Berlin address book by name and profession. In relation to the total number of the Jewish population, Jewish doctors were clearly over-represented in Berlin towards the end of the 18th century. In 1798 Wolf Davidson wrote:
“It is true that they have the privilege that if they marry they do not need any privileges and can also live in cities where no Jew is otherwise suffered, but they must pay more dearly for their matriculation and their permission to use currencies than the Christian doctors; they cannot get phisicate. […] It is strange that baptized Jewish doctors […] can hold medical positions, from which one should conclude that through baptism the Jew acquires more knowledge and becomes a better moral person. "
Among the Jewish doctors practicing in Berlin in the 18th century were Marcus Herz , student of Immanuel Kant and husband of the Salonière Henriette Herz , medical members of the Society of Friends such as Aron Gumpertz, co-founder of the Berlin Haskala and mentor to Moses Mendelsohn , and Michael Friedländer, who Nephew of the important reformer and first Jewish city councilor in Berlin, David Friedländer .
19th to early 20th century
From the 19th century, doctors - alongside or partly in front of the rabbis - made up the majority of the Jewish educated elite. A dispute between the Christian Göttingen gynecologist Friedrich Benjamin Osiander and his Jewish student Johann Jakob Gumprecht made it clear that the Jewish doctors were exposed to considerable pressure to adapt on the part of the majority of society: In order to be regarded as civically equal, in Osiander's opinion they had their Jewish doctors to give up cultural identity. As detailed studies of Phoebus Moses Philippson 's writings have shown, his membership of the Jewish minority has little significance in his medical work. Medical science is explicitly viewed as a place where Philippson could prove his incorporation into civil society. However, the Jewish faith finds space and expression in Philippson's work The Five Books of Moses for School and Home ; Religion and religious culture are reduced to the sphere of private piety.
Numerous medical foundations testify to the commitment of wealthy Jews to their cities and to their increasing integration into Christian civil society. In 1839 Salomon Heine donated the Israelitisches Krankenhaus Hamburg , in 1871 the Israelitisches Blindeninstitut was founded by Ludwig August Frankl von Hochwart in Vienna, in 1890 Hannah Luise von Rothschild founded the charitable foundation Carolinum, whose name is still at the center of dental, oral and maxillofacial medicine University Clinic Frankfurt am Main continues. The Jewish Hospital in Hanover opened in 1901 . Franziska Speyer contributed to the founding of the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main , today the third largest university in Germany, with a donation from the fortune of her late husband Georg Speyer . 1904–1906 the Georg-Speyer-Haus was opened as a research institute for chemotherapy under the direction of Paul Ehrlich with a capital of one million gold marks from Franziska Speyer's fortune . Jews achieved their academic recognition before 1914. The anatomist Emil Zuckerkandl (1849–1910), the neurologist Moritz Benedikt (1835–1920) and the internist and balneologist Enoch Heinrich Kisch (1841–1918) were the outstanding among the ordinaries , the first both in Vienna, the latter in Prague. Many German-Jewish scientists achieved high positions in the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science (now the Max Planck Society ), where appointments were made by Kaiser Wilhelm II . Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) was among the first ten senators appointed by the emperor . Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was also a member of the Senate .
The neurologist Ludwig Edinger had completed his habilitation at the University of Giessen ; Since he was denied a professorship as a Jew because of the increased anti-Semitism around 1882/83, he first settled as a neurologist in Frankfurt am Main and continued to work at the non-academic Senckenberg Research Institute . In 1912 he was one of the co-signers of the deed of foundation of the University of Frankfurt and was given the first chair for neurology in Germany in 1914 . The Edinger nucleus was named after him, which is the original nucleus of the parasympathetic nerve fibers of the third cranial nerve ( oculomotor nerve ), which controls the pupillary reflex and thus the adaptation of the eye. Harry Eagle (1905–1992), as a pathologist, worked with Renato Dulbecco to lay the foundations for the in vitro cultivation of living cells. The nutrient media he developed in cell culture are named after him, for example MEM (Minimal Eagle's Medium), EMEM (Eagle's Minimum Essential Medium) or Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM). Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943) discovered the AB0 system of blood groups in 1901 , for which he received the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Oskar Minkowski (1858–1931) discovered the importance of the pancreas for carbohydrate metabolism , which enabled fundamental advances in the therapy of diabetes mellitus . The long-lasting interest of Jewish doctors in skin diseases began as early as Biblical times. Marion Baldur Sulzberger (1895–1983), Stephen Rothman (1894–1963), Herman Pinkus (1905–1985) and Louis Forman (1901–1988) were among the first dermatologists to conduct systematic pathological examinations of the clinical pictures , which were previously only descriptive.
Jewish doctors during National Socialism
While the proportion of German Jews in the total population before the era of National Socialism was less than one percent, in Berlin less than four percent, it comprised almost half of the Berlin health insurance and hospital doctors. The persecution began long before 1933. Nationally (socially) oriented students were supported by the majority of students and made teaching increasingly impossible for Jewish professors. The directors and institute directors themselves carried out the dismissals on March 31, 1933 - before the race laws came into force . With the Reich Citizenship Act , a component of the Nuremberg Race Laws of 1935, with the help of an anti-Semitic definition of the term citizen, Jewish doctors were prohibited from practicing their profession in what was then the German Reich .
In contrast, the confidence of the German population at the time in Jewish doctors is attested, as is the distrust of the propagated New German Medicine .
The “Fourth Ordinance to the Reich Citizenship Law” of July 25, 1938, decreed the expiry of the license to practice medicine for all Jewish doctors on September 30, 1938, whereby the term “license to practice” was replaced by the term “bestallung”. This term, introduced by the National Socialists , was valid until the Federal Doctors' Ordinance came into force on January 1, 1970, when the term “Approval” was only reverted to. The professional ban meant the end of the professional existence of Jewish health professionals. Nazi Reichsärzteführer Gerhard Wagner (1888–1939) proclaimed in a party conference speech: “The medical profession and medical science have finally been freed from the Jewish spirit.” 3,152 Jewish doctors were still living in Germany at that time. They were no longer allowed to call themselves a doctor. 709 Jewish doctors were granted revocation and with police registration, to treat exclusively Jewish people as “ medical practitioners ”. The license to practice medicine was withdrawn from Jewish dentists , veterinarians and pharmacists on January 31, 1939 through the “Eighth Ordinance to the Reich Citizenship Law” of January 17, 1939 . The majority were driven into exile, death, or suicide .
The dentist and university professor Hans Moral (1885–1933), who, together with Guido Fischer, can be seen as a pioneer of local anesthesia in dentistry, should be mentioned as an example . In addition to the clinical application, they dealt with the anatomical and physiological basis of this new procedure. Until the beginning of the 21st century, services in this regard were exclusively awarded to Guido Fischer. Hans Moral was not mentioned by Walter Hoffmann-Axthelm (1908-2001) in his standard work Die Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde (1973). still in the widespread encyclopedia of dentistry (1974) nor in Wolfgang Strübig's history of dentistry (1989) Like many Jewish victims of National Socialism, Hans Moral and his services were ignored in Germany. It was not until 1991 that Hans Moral was honored with a plaque of honor in the foyer of the main building of the University of Rostock .
The implementation of the law led to the annihilation of a large part of the intellectual elite of German Jewry, as well as of German society and science, which up until that point had played a leading role. A scientific emigration in the sense of a brutal expulsion took place in parallel in Austria, where the proportion of Jewish doctors was very high, if not the highest among the academic professions.
In 1913, the dermatologist Felix Aaron Theilhaber founded the population decline in Berlin with the unhealthy living conditions in his study Das sterile Berlin . In the same year he founded the Society for Sexual Reform ("Gesex"), advocated birth control and against the criminalization of abortion and homosexuality and, together with Magnus Hirschfeld, was one of the pioneers of the sexual reform movement . In 1930 he co-founded the first clinic for birth control and sex education in Berlin . In 1933 he was briefly imprisoned by the Gestapo and lost his license as a doctor. In 1935 he emigrated to Palestine .
From August Paul von Wassermann (1866-1925) only the Wassermann reaction is known mostly, but he was also in many other areas of Bacteriology and Immunology operates. Of his work, however, the development of the serodiagnostics of syphilis gained the greatest practical importance and made his name world-famous.
Béla Schick developed the Schick test named after him for diagnosing diphtheria .
The above-mentioned Paul Ehrlich and his colleague Hata developed with the Salvarsan a drug treatment of syphilis that promised fewer side effects at the time and, compared to the mercury therapies most commonly used so far, and thus founded chemotherapy . He was also instrumental in the development of the healing serum against diphtheria, which is usually attributed to Emil von Behring alone. In 1908 he received (together with Ilya Ilyich Metschnikow ) for his contributions to immunology the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.
For the discovery of streptomycin (1944), the first antibiotic against tuberculosis , Selman Abraham Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Many antibiotics were discovered in the laboratory under his direction, including actinomycin (1940), clavacin , streptothricin , grisein , neomycin (1949), fradicin , candicidin and candidin . Waksman also coined the term " antibiotic ".
Ernst Weiß was an Austrian doctor and writer. He was considered a master of the psychological novel and was friends with Franz Kafka and Ödön von Horváth . In 1940 he committed suicide in exile in Paris suicide .
The German gynecologist Max Hirsch is considered a pioneer in holistic gynecology and advocated social hygiene and occupational safety for women. In 1939 he fled to England, where he continued to work as an obstetrician.
The pathologist Philipp Schwartz , until 1933 professor at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main , founded in 1933 an "advice center for German scientists" in Zurich. From this he recruited a number of German professors, among them Erich Frank , who, as a Jewish German doctor, accepted an appointment at the University of Istanbul in 1934 and modernized academic medicine in Turkey. After 1945 he stayed in Turkey and was honored with a state funeral after his death.
The doctors Werner Adam Laqueur and Friedrich Reimann (1897-1994) were among the founding members of the Institute for Experimental Research at the University of Istanbul.
Ernst Boris Chain had to leave Germany in 1933 and received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1945 (together with Alexander Fleming and Howard Walter Florey ) for the discovery of penicillin .
Felix Bloch fled that same year and later received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his research into NMR, which is now used as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medical diagnostics.
Also Tadeusz Reichstein left Germany in 1933. He received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for the synthesis of vitamin C and the production of hydrocortisone .
A year later Konrad Bloch had to flee. He received the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the regulation of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. His basic research led to the development of cholesterol-lowering drugs.
Hans Popper (1903–1988) was a Viennese pathologist who, due to his Jewish descent , was dismissed from the University of Vienna after the “Anschluss” of Austria to the Third Reich and subsequently fled to the USA. He received worldwide recognition, particularly in the field of hepatopathology.
Bernhard Gottlieb (1885–1950) was expelled from the University of Vienna , as were the dentists Rudolf Kronfeld (1901–1940), Balint Orbán (1889–1974), Joseph Peter Weinmann (1896–1960), Albin Oppenheim (1875–1945) and Harry Safe (1889–1974). Their names are not known to many in this country, they only achieved great fame in America and their scientific activities were highly valued and honored many times.
After he had also had to leave Germany, Hans Krebs received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1953 for the discovery of the citric acid cycle together with Fritz Lipmann , who at the same time fled to the USA from the Nazis.
Georg von Hevesy fled the Nazis in 1943 and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the use of isotopes - also in medical diagnostics.
Conventional medicine
In the time of National Socialism, naturopathy and folk medicine were very popular, while the National Socialists criticized the allegedly Jewish-Marxist “orthodox medicine” as too socio-medical and therapeutic. Universities and the medical profession in the German Reich in the 1920s and 1930s were considered "Jewish" by anti-Semites . In this context, anti-Semitic critics of established medicine used the battle term " Judged conventional medicine " in the 1930s to emphasize their demand for " healthy folk medicine " or the " New German Medicine ". What was meant by this was a greater importance for naturopathic approaches and procedures in medical practice. It was not until 1998 that "scientifically-oriented medicine" was proposed as a correct replacement term. The opposite is the unscientific or belief-based medicine. Nevertheless, the derogatory term of "conventional medicine" has survived to this day, especially in circles of alternative medicine and naturopaths and their supporters as well as the media.
Escape
Jewish doctors fled from National Socialist Germany mainly to the USA, Palestine, Great Britain and Latin America. These emigrants influenced the development of social policy, medical care and research in the respective countries. In some cases, they initially experienced severe restrictions on their medical work. Medical students and doctors could only work as nurses , some switched to professions such as cooks or butlers . Jewish doctors remaining in Germany were murdered in the Holocaust . In Rome it was possible to save around 50 Jews using K's disease ( Italian : il Morbo di K). The disease K was a name invented by the doctor Giovanni Borromeo in the course of the Roman deportations of Jews for a non-existent disease. German inspectors interpreted the designation as "Koch's disease" ( tuberculosis ), therefore avoided these rooms and thus left the affected people alone.
Medicine and Judaism from the middle of the 20th century
Immediately after the end of World War II, the Reich Citizenship Law and its ordinances were repealed in Germany by the Allied Control Council Law No. 1 of September 20, 1945. On February 14, 1968, the Federal Constitutional Court formulated guidelines for dealing with “legal” provisions that “so clearly contradict fundamental principles of justice”. Only recently have the German medical societies turned to researching the history of their Jewish colleagues.
Work-up
The critical reappraisal of Nazi medical crimes did not begin until 1980, when the topic was combined with the criticism of a future generation of the way the sick and disabled were dealt with. As a counter-event to the 83rd German Medical Congress organized by critical doctors and historians, including Gerhard Baader , “1. Health Day ”in West Berlin with 12,000 participants, in 1980 the motto was“ Medicine under National Socialism. A taboo past - unbroken tradition? ”. This event met with great criticism from the established professional representatives. They wanted to continue to forget, repress or at least retouch the guilt of the medical profession under National Socialism. For them, Health Day was a provocation. However, it marked the beginning of a diverse occupation with Nazi medicine. As a result, Baader made medicine under National Socialism one of the institute's main research areas, a branch of science in which, along with Rolf Winau , Fridolf Kudlien , Werner Friedrich Kümmel , Gunter Mann and Eduard Seidler, he belonged to the initially very small group of medical historians who did Researched the subject of medicine and National Socialism. In 1983, Baader was appointed adjunct professor at the Institute for the History of Medicine and Ethics in Medicine at the Charité .
As an example, reference is made to the evaluation by the Berlin Charité from 2010. which shows in a list more than 160 persecuted university professors as well as about 30 assistants and other employees of the medical faculty alone. Research on the latter groups and on the large number of students who have also been de-registered for the same reasons is required first.
The historian Dominik Groß also works out the role of the perpetrators and victims during the Third Reich, for example in the personal dictionary of dentists in the “Third Reich” and in post-war Germany. Offenders, followers, exonerated, opposition, persecuted . or medical societies under National Socialism . The German Dental Association (BZÄK), the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Dentists and the German Society for Dentistry, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine (DGZMK) commissioned the study "Dentistry and dentists under National Socialism", which was presented on November 28, 2019.
The medical societies have increasingly dealt with the reappraisal of their role during National Socialism. The German Society for Internal Medicine (DGIM) awarded the historians Hans-Georg Hofer and Ralf Forsbach a research contract in 2013 , the results of which were presented in 2015. The DGIM is "ashamed because it let 70 years pass before its actions in the time of National Socialism were scientifically investigated and made public". A comprehensive register of perpetrators and victims was created. The DGIM also decided to remove the Gustav von Bergmann Medal , which was awarded from 1996 to 2010 because of the Nazi past of the eponym (as Vice Dean at the Berlin Charité in 1933 in the faculty, that all Jews were released) in 2013 by the Leopold Lichtwitz Medal (Lichtwitz was chairman of the DGIM in 1933, who was removed from office due to his Jewish affiliation).
Progress
Advances in medical science have increasingly transformed clinical practice into a discipline that is characterized, among other things, by verified laboratory findings and clinical observations. Jewish doctors and scientists had and have made a considerable contribution to this. In some cases, the merits of the researchers, which increasingly consist of research teams, are not easy to assign.
Jewish social ethics
In Jewish culture, clinical decisions and research areas are influenced by Jewish social ethics, which are often different from the restrictions and regulations of other religions in which illnesses were viewed as "God given". There was certainly resistance to intervening in creation or to putting an end to pain , which were accepted as divine means of education. Church representatives, including Rabbi Abraham de Sola (1825–1886), Canada's first rabbi, supported the advocates of anesthesia . De Sola has reinterpreted the key sentence from Genesis 3:16. In three articles for a Canadian medical journal he explains that God's destiny for women is that they have to bear children with "hardship" or "effort" (בְּעֶצֶב B'etzev , also: sorrow, sorrow, suffering), not under " Pain". From the Jewish point of view, human life has an inviolable, infinite value. Guided by this high level position in the Jewish religion, in which the life and health and maintain health measures in terms of prevention be placed in the foreground, the high interest among Jewish scientists initiated the study of infectious diseases and has its origin in the hygiene measures ( such ).
Differences of opinion
From the perspective of Judaism, clinical practice in secular medicine is often described in military language. Therapies, especially pharmaceutical therapies, form “tools”. An “arsenal” of “weapons” is used to “fight” a disease or to “conquer” cancer and other diseases. Or one could “kill two birds with one stone” with one procedure. The linguistic usage suggests that "destruction" is the solution to most disease problems, but that this has a negative effect on patient care and medical progress.
In contrast, Jewish medicine takes a more positive approach. The focus is on prevention . Furthermore, following Rambam's admonitions in his treatise on the therapy of asthma , the doctor should treat the patient, not the disease. Priority is given to the individual, not the "system" of health care. The individual should be treated as an individual, that is, in a personal way, not according to a “unitary paradigm”. Dealing with the patient is always geared towards supporting the patient in dealing with his illness, regardless of whether a cure is possible or not.
Religious rules binding
The interpretation of the religious rules and laws is essential. Judaism has no supreme authority. The opinion of the local rabbi and its interpretation is always decisive. It depends on whether the rabbi belongs to the orthodox , the conservative or the liberal direction. In addition, there is reconstructionism . Reform Judaism strongly emphasizes the autonomy, the common sense of the individual. A rabbi's judgment is only one factor among many in making a decision. The reason is that Orthodox Jews view both the Torah and the Talmud as given by God. The Reform Jews, on the other hand, consider the Talmud to be man-made. The decisive factor here is the division of the Jewish commandments ( mitzvot ) into ethical and ritual laws as well as the view that the ethical laws are timeless and immutable, while the ritual laws can be changed in order to adapt them to the respective living environment. Probably the most essential sentence in the Torah in relation to the question of what is allowed and what is not is: “Observe my laws and regulations; whoever lives it will live through it. ”(3rd Book of Moses 18: 5) In the rabbinical interpretation it is expressly emphasized that it says:“ Live by the laws, not die because of them ”. This basic principle, which is called Pikuach Nefesch (saving life), allows the breaking of almost all commandments when it comes to life support. Exceptions are murder , prohibited sexual relations ( incest ) and idolatry .
Treatment on Shabbat and certain holidays
Orthodox Jews do not perform activities on Shabbat that are defined as work according to the Halacha. The regulations apply not only to the Sabbath, but also (modified) for other Jewish holidays such as Yom Kippur , Rosh Hashanah , Shavuot , Simchat Torah and on certain days of Passover and Sukkot . Halachic controversies about the admissibility of medical treatments on Shabbat deal with the issue of whether an actual or possible danger to life ( Pikuach Nefesch ) overrides the biblical laws and rabbinical orders and rules relating to Shabbat (חוטרא hutra ) or whether such a danger to life it only temporarily suspends (דחויה dechuya ). The Jewish laws, including the Shulchan Aruch and the Mishnah , state that a doctor or dentist must carry out all activities necessary for the treatment and care of his patient (kol tzorchei choleh) and not limit himself to those activities that eliminate an imminent danger to life.
Modern medicine
The influence of the Jewish commandments and the halacha greatly affects controversial discussions in the medical field. These include, above all, topics such as euthanasia , abortion , organ transplantation or artificial insemination including pre- implantation diagnosis (PGD). This also includes the priority of the mother's life over that of the child in the event of a difficult birth , the admissibility of animal experiments and the influence of dietary laws on the consumption of medication . A distinction must be made between religious and secular regulations, especially in Israel.
Stem cell research
Another principle on which attitudes towards certain medical procedures are based is the definition of the beginning of life. In the Talmud (Nidda 30b) it is pointed out that the embryo only receives a soul (Hebrew: נפש nefesch or רוח ru'ach, breath) 40 days after fertilization. Until then it is considered “pure water” (Hebrew: מַיָּה בּעַלְמַא, maja be'alma). This results in the positive attitude towards stem cell research within Judaism . According to the rabbinical view, the pre-implanted embryo is not considered to be human life. It is considered a "pre-embryo". Although this is also worthy of protection and therefore the generation of embryonic stem cells for research purposes is prohibited, research on "surplus" embryos (for example during in vitro fertilization or in connection with pre-implantation diagnostics ) is permitted. Instead of destroying them or simply allowing them to perish, it is, according to Jewish belief, ethically justifiable in this case to use them for research purposes. Incidentally, only Pope Pius IX. In 1869 in the papal bull Apostolicae sedis moderationi, abortion was declared forbidden in principle. All the centuries before, the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church saw the animation of the embryo or fetus as a decisive moment in the beginning of life. The theologians at that time were dominated by the doctrine of successive inspiration ( epigenism ). Accordingly, the ensouling took place gradually and progressively.
“In a controversy between three religions, the Catholic pastor postulates that life begins with fertilization, the Protestant pastor thinks that life begins with the implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus, whereupon the rabbi notes that life begins when the children are out the house and the dog is dead. "
Termination of pregnancy
In principle, an embryo is worth protecting from fertilization - but not at the expense of the mother's life. Until the baby has left the mother's womb at delivery , it is considered part of the woman. Likewise, according to the Halacha, the woman does not become a mother until her child is born - in contrast to the man, who already becomes a father at conception. In weighing the dangers to both lives - the mother and the unborn child - priority is given to the mother until the time of birth. According to Jewish ethics, termination of pregnancy is therefore acceptable until birth if there are clear medical indicators that speak for it. According to Maimonides, the fetus may have to be viewed as a “persecutor”, that is, someone who tries to take the life of a woman who has problems with pregnancy and childbirth. According to the law, however, anyone who persecutes another person with the intention of killing himself may be killed himself. It is thus a kind of self-defense of the pregnant woman against the unborn child, which is trying to kill her. Whether psychosocial indications also justify this is the subject of rabbinical controversy. The Ashkenazi chief rabbi of Israel Isser Jehuda Unterman (1886–1976) also included the psychological pressure that could drive the mother to suicide, but also a possible degradation of the mother, as a threat . If, however, most of the baby has left the womb during the birth process, one must no longer injure or even kill it, because "one must not displace one soul for another soul". (Mishnah, Ohalot 7.6) In the Christian and also in the Muslim culture, however, abortions are only possible to a very limited extent.
euthanasia
When it comes to euthanasia, there is a distinction between active euthanasia, killing on request , passive euthanasia, i.e. the failure to initiate or continue life-sustaining measures, assisted suicide in the sense of assisted suicide and indirect euthanasia, i.e. an unintentional shortening of life as a side effect of pain relief. or to distinguish symptom relief. The Torah represents God as the only one who brings about death and creates life (אני אמית ומחיה ani amit weachayeh Deut. 32:39). The destruction of human life would therefore mean the destruction of something sacred. For this reason, the classical Jewish tradition rejects active euthanasia, but at the same time it advocates the removal of an "obstacle to death". The dialectic between the inviolability of life (Hebrew: קדושת חיים, Keduschat Cha'im) and the rejection of painful suffering (יסורים Jissurim 'misery') can possibly lead not to postpone the death of a terminally ill person and in the case of the insurmountable To show the sick empathy in the sense of a mercy (רחמים rahamim ). Some contemporary Jewish voices advocate assisted suicide or even active euthanasia. However, there is no support for this in the previous halachic discourse.
Organ transplant
In organ transplantation, four questions are asked and answered differently according to Jewish law. How is the date of death of the donor determined? Is the transfer of an organ from the body of a deceased generally permitted? Is a person allowed to put themselves at risk in order to save someone else? Can a child or a person with impaired decision-making skills serve as a donor? In medicine, a person is considered dead when their brain death is determined. In Jewish thought, on the other hand, a person is dead when his heart stops beating. Many Orthodox are therefore against organ removal from the brain dead. But this is also based on the belief that in Judaism a dead person must be buried intact. Otherwise, his resurrection at the end of days would be impossible. According to some halachic scholars, organ donation is a classic example in Jewish law of the obligation to violate a commandment over Pikuach Nefesh . Saving a life can override the prohibition on desecrating a corpse. For many liberal Jews , saving a human life is more important than ensuring the integrity of the body. The highest rabbinate in Israel officially recognized the concept of brain death in the late 1980s. The removal of tissue donations from living people, namely tissues that regenerate themselves such as blood , skin or bone marrow , is not controversial, as the health of the donor is not endangered. However, tissue donations usually come from the deceased. Like organ donation, tissue donation is not linked to brain death. Tissues can therefore be donated up to three days after the cardiovascular arrest, depending on the tissue. The transfer of a cornea is usually possible because the removal and transfer takes place when the donor's heart has stopped beating. In the opinion of numerous Jewish authorities, the living donation of a kidney is also justifiable if the transplant is vital and the dangers for the donor are classified as low. However, it is not permissible to remove an organ from a potential donor if he is unable to assess the full scope of the organ removal. For this reason, for example, the consent of children, adolescents, demented people or the mentally disabled to organ donation is ineffective according to the Jewish understanding.
Animal testing
Judaism teaches that animals are part of God's creation; therefore, they must be treated with compassion. As a matter of principle, people must avoid causing them pain (צער בעלי חיים Tza'ar ba'alei chayim, Talmud Baba Metzia 85a). However, Jewish teaching allows animal experiments as long as two conditions are met: There is a high probability that there will be a benefit for humans and that at the same time the animal will not be caused unnecessary pain.
Kosher drugs
The very strict Jewish dietary laws also apply to medicines . An emulsifier , the fatty acids from the porcine derived, is not kosher . The same applies to pork gelatin . All drugs that contain animal ingredients are suspect. This also includes amino acids , enzymes , proteins and hormones obtained from animals . The classification of lactose is particularly problematic because of the mandatory separation of milk and meat products; Lactose is part of many tablets. On Passover , even stricter rules apply, because the consumption of leavened food ( Chametz ) is prohibited during the seven or eight days of the Passover festival. These are all foods that contain one of the five types of grain, wheat , oats , rye , barley and spelled and that were in contact with water for more than 18 minutes during their production without having been baked (Schmot 1–15, Exodus, 2. Book of Moses ). Tablets often contain additives such as corn or wheat starch . Sorbitol can contain dextrose or glucose . All types of syrup are suspected of containing glycerine . Kosher alternative medicines are widely available in Israel . The Talmud says that religious regulations do not have to be observed if they endanger life or health ( Pikuach Nefesch ).
Jewish medical researchers
A total of 57 physicians of Jewish descent received the Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology (as of 2017). In honor of the Jewish Nobel Prize winners, a promenade (Hebrew: הטיילת זוכי פרס Prובל, Tayelet Hatnei Pras Nobel ) with memorials of the laureates was built in Rishon LeZion (Israel) . Research in the fields of cell biology , molecular biology , immunology , oncology and genetics is dominant . Representatives that may be mentioned Arthur Kornberg , who (along with Severo Ochoa the Nobel Prize) in 1959 "for the discovery of the mechanism in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic received". One of his sons, Roger D. Kornberg , is also a Nobel Prize winner. He received it in 2006 for his work on the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription , the complementary transcription of the genetic information of the cell nucleus on the ribonucleic acids. In 1985, Joseph L. Goldstein and Michael Stuart Brown received the Nobel Prize “for their discoveries relating to the regulation of cholesterol metabolism”. In 2013, Randy Schekman and James Rothman received the Nobel Prize for their discovery of the mechanisms in the vesicles that are responsible for the transport of many substances in the cell. For their discoveries concerning the molecular mechanisms of the circadian rhythm was Michael Rosbash (along with Jeffrey C. Hall and Michael W. Young ) the Nobel Prize 2017th
Jewish hospitals
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Ancient Judaism had no hospitals . Since the late Middle Ages, the first hospitals with the name Heqdesh (הקדש, Hebrew : “the consecrated”, benevolent foundation, Germanized: Heckhaus) can be found in Jewish writings or the name domus hospitale judaeorum ( Latin : Jewish hospital) in Latin scripts , so in Regensburg (1210), Würzburg (1218) and Cologne (1248). They emerged as alternatives to the Christian hospices , in which Jews were not accepted or prevented from observing their ritual regulations. Other facilities followed in the 14th and early 17th centuries, although these cannot be compared with modern hospitals. The care of the sick was in the hands of the Chewra Kadischa (חֶבְרָא קַדִישָא, Hebrew: Holy Brotherhood ), who dedicated themselves in particular to the ritual burial of the deceased, later through the Chewra Bikur Holim (ביקור חולים, Hebrew: [Brotherhood for] visiting the sick) . With the establishment of the Jewish ghetto in 1462, the first detectable Jewish hospital was established in Frankfurt am Main . If a member of the Jewish community devotes himself to a sick fellow human being, he or she fulfills several commandments of the Torah. Visiting the sick cannot be separated from the commandment to love one's neighbor (Lev. 19, 18) and is a holy duty (Mitzvah) for all Jewish believers. This duty also applies to non-Israelites. The Heqdesh was only replaced by the new building of the Berlin Jewish Hospital on Oranienburger Strasse in Spandauer Vorstadt in 1756 . The first modern Jewish hospitals: The Hôpital Rothschild was in 1852 in Paris and shortly thereafter identical as Rothschild Hospital in Jerusalem in 1854 and 1873 in Vienna as the Rothschild Hospital opened. In 1858 the Bikur Cholim Hospital opened in Jerusalem. By 1918 there were 18 Jewish hospitals in Germany. The number rose to 21 hospitals by 1932, along with 28 sanatoriums and nine institutions for the blind, deaf-mute and the mentally weak. The Jewish Hospital Berlin was the only Jewish institution in Germany to survive the Nazi terror. It is the oldest institution that was created by people of the Jewish faith in Berlin and which still functions in the same way.
American Jews founded about 113 Jewish hospitals. German Jewish immigrants promoted the first wave with the establishment of the Jewish Hospital Association of Cincinnati in 1854. The first hospitals were built in Baltimore , Chicago, and Philadelphia . The second wave of founding in the years 1880 to 1945 was triggered by Eastern Jewish immigrants. In the last big wave of founding between 1945 and 1960, the number of beds in Jewish hospitals rose from 13,800 to 18,283. The number of Jewish hospitals in the USA has been gradually reduced in recent years, which is attributed to the economic framework, the decline in anti-Semitism and demographic changes.
There are 37 Jewish hospitals in Israel, 7 in Canada, one each in Australia, Iran and Morocco.
Hereditary diseases in endogamy
Judaism is counted among the endogenous populations . Endogamy leads to an increase in the average inbreeding coefficient . This increases the likelihood that two identical alleles are located at one gene locus ( homozygosity ). Since most hereditary diseases are inherited recessively, i.e. sick people must be homozygous for the disease, the increase in the inbreeding coefficient leads to a more frequent occurrence of hereditary diseases than would be the case in a non-endogamous population. The publication of such studies sparked heated debates. Conservative Jewish groups tried to put the results into perspective. They feared discrimination and stated that the Ashkenazim are simply one of the most genetically studied ethnic groups in the world. If a particularly large number of disease genes were discovered in them, this does not mean that such mutations are less common in other ethnic groups.
Cancers
In recent years, several research teams have discovered so-called cancer genes, which are particularly common among the Ashkenazim , the Jews of Central and Eastern European origin. A study by Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore ( Maryland ) found that one in 17 Ashkenazim carries a genetic change that doubles the risk of developing colon cancer. It is the most widespread cancer gene that has ever been discovered within a single ethnic group. Further studies have shown that in Ashkenazi Jewish women, disease-specific changes ( mutations ) occur in the form of gene changes called BRCA1 and BRCA2 , which promote the development of breast cancer . The same mutation appears to make men prone to prostate cancer .
Dor Yeshorim
The frequency of the mutation of chromosome 15 responsible for Tay-Sachs syndrome is noticeably increased in Ashkenazi Jews of Eastern European origin. To avoid the disease, pregnancy is not recommended if both parents are known to be carriers. Dor Yeshorim (DY) ( Hebrew דור ישרים , Generation of the upright ' , Psalm 112: 2), and Committee for Prevention of Genetic Diseases (ger .: Society for the prevention of genetic diseases) called holds the most famous of several organizations Orthodox especially marriageable Jews an anonymous matching process prior to a marriage bureau at based on genetic screening of the individual for hereditary diseases. Dor Yeshorim was set up to fulfill the Jewish religious laws, which on the one hand do not allow an abortion and at the same time are supposed to promote the wealth of children ("Be fruitful and multiply") by choosing a partner with whom there would be no danger of having children because of the To have to forego the risk of a hereditary disease.
In the course of time, Dor Yeshorim has investigated the following diseases: familial dysautonomia , cystic fibrosis , Canavan's disease , glycogen storage disease (type 1), Fanconi anemia (type C), Bloom syndrome , Niemann-Pick disease , mucolipidosis (type IV ). The Chediak-Higashi syndrome (CHS) is a rare genetic disease that is increasingly observed in Jewish populations.
Families in which the disease has already occurred use the possibility of genetic counseling prior to pregnancy or prenatal diagnostics (PND).
literature
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- Peter Assion: Yiddish Pharmacopoeia. In: Author's Lexicon . 2nd Edition. Volume 4, Col. 523-525.
- Ron Barkai: A History of Jewish Gynaecological Texts in the Middle Ages. Leiden 1998.
- Joachim Bodamer : Medicine. In: Leonhard Reinisch (ed.): The Jews and the culture. Stuttgart 1961, pp. 26-41.
- Martin Gumpert , Alfred Joseph: Jewish doctors in earlier centuries. In: Siegmund Kaznelson (ed.): Jews in the German cultural sector. Berlin 1962, pp. 461-465.
- Salomon R. Kagan: Jewish Medicine. Boston 1952.
- Wolfram Kaiser, Arina Völker: Judaica medica of the 18th and early 19th centuries in the holdings of the University Archives in Halle. (= Scientific contributions from the Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg. 1979/52). Halle-Wittenberg 1979.
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- Richard Landau: History of the Jewish Doctors. Berlin 1895. (digitized version)
- Isaak Münz: The Jewish doctors in the Middle Ages. Frankfurt am Main 1922. (digitized version)
- Micha von Nordheim: "I am the Lord, your doctor". The doctor in the culture of ancient Israel? (= Würzburg medical historical research. 63). Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 1998.
- Ingrid Oberndorfer: Jewish women doctors in the Middle Ages. In: David. Jewish culture magazine. Issue No. 56, Vienna 2003.
- Heinrich Rosin : The Jews in Medicine. Philo Verlag, 1926. ( sammlungen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de Accessed October 24, 2016; PDF, 8.4 MB)
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- Moses Alter Spira: Milestones in the history of Jewish doctors in Germany. In: Joseph Schumacher (Ed.): Melemata. Festschrift for Werner Leibbrand on his 70th birthday. Mannheim 1968, pp. 149-158.
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- Literature by Gerrit Bos , Medieval Jewish-Islamic science (Medicine); medieval Arabic-Hebrew medical terminology, Academia
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- Volker Zimmermann: Jewish medicine (history). In: Werner E. Gerabek et al. (Ed.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. 2005, pp. 707-709.
- Volker Zimmermann: Yiddish Pharmacopoeia. In: Werner E. Gerabek et al. (Ed.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. 2005, p. 696 f.
- Volker Zimmermann: The Heidelberg Pharmacopoeia Ysack Leuj. Contributions of Jewish Doctors to Medieval Medicine. Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2018, ISBN 978-3-515-12174-3 .
Web links
Individual evidence
- ↑ Oswald Gabelkover: Artzney book, in which Ausgnaedigem Bevelch ... vast for all of the human body anligen and ailments, unreadable and reinforced Artzneyen ... be brought together ... are . Georg Gruppenbach, 1603, p. 432 ( books.google.com ).
- ↑ Eva Shenia Shemyakova: 'Des Juden buch von kreuczenach'. Investigation and edition of the recipe part of the Heidelberg Cpg 786. In: Fachproseforschung - Grenzüberreitungen. Volume 8/9, 2012/13, pp. 207–265, here: p. 222 ( Das Judenpflaster ).
- ^ Gundolf Keil: The German Isaak Judäus reception from the 13th to the 15th century. (= European Scientific Relations. Supplement 2). Shaker, Aachen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8440-3933-7 , pp. 18-21, 29 and 81 f.
- ↑ Michael E. Graf v. Matuschka: Hesse, the Jew from Salms (Solmes): doctor and scribe. A mainly name-based excursus. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 8, 1990, pp. 207-219, here: p. 208.
- ^ Eberhard Wolff: Medical professional identity as a means for Jewish acculturation. Conference contribution: Medical professionals: Identities, interests and ideology . Society for the Social History of Medicine, Glasgow 1999 (English).
- ^ Jewish Nobel Prize Winners. Retrieved April 2, 2016 .
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- ^ Robin Judd: Contested rituals. Circumcision, kosher butchering, and Jewish political life in Germany, 1843-1933 . Cornell University Press, Ithaca 2007, ISBN 978-0-8014-4545-3 (English).
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- ↑ Bad Mühllacken herb garden
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- ↑ Konrad Goehl: Guido d'Arezzo the Younger and his 'Liber mitis'. Horst Wellm, Pattensen near Hanover (now Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg) 1984 (= Würzburg medical-historical research. Volume 32), ISBN 3-921456-61-4 (also philosophical dissertation Würzburg), p. 113.
- ↑ Gundolf Keil (ed.): The "short urinary tract" of the Breslau "Codex Salernitanus" and his clan. Medical dissertation Bonn 1969, commissioned by C.-E. Kohlhauer, Feuchtwangen.
- ↑ Albert Kadner: A Liber de urinis of the Breslau Codex Salernitanus. Medical dissertation. Leipzig 1919.
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- ↑ Volker Zimmermann: Jewish doctors and their achievements in medicine in the Middle Ages. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 8, 1990, pp. 201-206, here: pp. 201 f.
- ↑ Peter Assion: Jakob von Landshut. In: Author's Lexicon . 2nd Edition. Volume 4, Col. 475 f.
- ↑ Cf. also Gundolf Keil: To Jakob von Landshut. In: Sudhoff's archive. Volume 52, 1969, pp. 388-394.
- ↑ Wolfgang Hirth, Gundolf Keil: To Jakob von Landshut. In: Sudhoff's archive. Volume 52, 1968, pp. 79-82 ( Miszelle. Zu Jakob von Landshut. ) And pp. 388-394.
- ↑ Volker Zimmermann (1990), pp. 203 f.
- ^ B. Milt: Contributions to the knowledge of medieval medicine on Lake Constance and the Upper Rhine. In: Quarterly journal of the natural research society in Zurich. Volume 85, 1940, pp. 263-321.
- ↑ Gundolf Keil: Jew from Säckingen. In: Author's Lexicon . 2nd Edition. Volume 4, Col. 889.
- ↑ Peter Proff: Meyer Judaeus. In: Author's Lexicon . 2nd Edition. Volume 6, Col. 489 f.
- ^ Wolfgang Wegner: Meyer Judaeus. In: Encyclopedia of Medical History. 2005, p. 984.
- ↑ Michael E. Graf v. Matuschka: Hesse, the Jew from Salms (Solmes): doctor and scribe. A mainly name-based excursus. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 8, 1990, pp. 207-219.
- ^ Gundolf Keil: Jude von Salms (Solms). In: Author's Lexicon . 2nd Edition. Volume 4, Col. 889-891.
- ↑ Georg Ludwig Kriegk: Frankfurt civil dispute and conditions in the Middle Ages. A contribution to the history of the German bourgeoisie based on documentary research. Frankfurt am Main 1862, p. 449.
- ^ Felix Aaron Theilhaber (1930), Col. 35.
- ↑ Volker Zimmermann (1990), p. 202.
- ↑ Cf. Volker Zimmermann: The Heidelberg Pharmacopoeia Ysack Leujs. [...]. 2018.
- ^ Heidelberg University Library: Cod. Pal. Germ. 786 and Cod. Pal. Germ. 241.
- ↑ Volker Zimmermann: The treatise on “daz lively water” from the Heidelberg manuscript Cod. Pal. Germ 786 - "The Jew's Book of Kreuczenach". In: Specialized prose research - Crossing borders. Volume 4/5, 2008/2009, pp. 113-123.
- ↑ Eva Shenia Shemyakova: The Jewish book of Kreuczenach . A contribution to Jewish medicine in the Middle Ages. Medical dissertation Göttingen 2010 (PDF; 690 kB).
- ↑ Peter Assion : Jude von Kreuznach. In: Wolfgang Stammler, Karl Langosch (Ed.): The German literature of the Middle Ages. Author Lexicon. 2nd Edition. Volume 4. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1983, column 887 f.
- ↑ Volker Zimmermann: Jude von Kreuznach. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 705 f.
- ↑ Eva Shenia Shemyakova: 'Des Juden buch von kreuczenach'. Investigation and edition of the recipe part of the Heidelberg Cpg 786. In: Fachproseforschung - Grenzüberreitungen. Volume 8/9, 2012/13, pp. 207-265.
- ↑ See also Bad Kreuznach # Jewish population .
- ↑ Eva Shenia Shemyakova (2012/13), pp. 208-217.
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- ↑ In Iudaeorum Medicastrorum calumnias et homicidia; pro Christianis pia exhortatio. Ex Theologorum et Iureconsultorum Decretis. A Georgio Mario Vuyrceburgio , Doctore Medico Marpurgi & alijs. Speyer 1570.
- ^ Rolf Heyers: Dr. Georg Marius, called Mayer von Würzburg (1533–1606). (Dental) medical dissertation Würzburg 1957, p. 52 f.
- ^ Richard Landau: History of the Jewish doctors. A contribution to the history of medicine. Berlin 1895, p. 30.
- ↑ INGID Oberdorfer (2003).
- ↑ Julius Aronius : Regesta on the history of the Jews in the Franconian and German empire up to the year 1273. Berlin 1902, p. 14 sammlungen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de , accessed on April 5, 2016
- ↑ Hans-Jürgen Becker: The position of canon law to those of different faiths: Gentiles, Jews and heretics. In: Ludger Grenzmann, Thomas Haye, Nikolaus Henkel, Thomas Kaufmann (eds.): Mutual perceptions of religions in the late Middle Ages and in the early modern period . Volume I: Basic Conceptual Questions and Case Studies . De Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-021352-2 , pp. 114–115 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
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- ↑ Will-Erich Peuckert . Ritual murder. In: Concise dictionary of German superstition . Volume 7 (1936), Col. 727-739 (digitized version )
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- ↑ Werner Dettelbacher: The Jewish doctor Sara and her work in Würzburg (1419). In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 17, 1998, pp. 101-103.
- ^ Bernhard D. Haage, Wolfgang Wegner, Gundolf Keil, Helga Haage-Naber: German specialist literature of the Artes in the Middle Ages and early modern times. Schmidt Erich, Berlin 2007 (= Basics of German Studies. Volume 43), pp. 187 and 230.
- ^ Richard Landau: History of the Jewish doctors. A contribution to the history of medicine. Berlin 1895, pp. 52 and 103.
- ↑ Isaak Münz: The Jewish Doctors in the Middle Ages. A contribution to the cultural history of the Middle Ages. Frankfurt am Main 1922, p. 56.
- ↑ Hermann Peters: The doctor and the art of healing in ancient times. 4th edition. Düsseldorf / Cologne 1973, p. 45.
- ^ Peter Kolb: The hospital and health system. In: Ulrich Wagner (Hrsg.): History of the city of Würzburg. 4 volumes, Volume I-III / 2 (I: From the beginnings to the outbreak of the Peasant War. 2001, ISBN 3-8062-1465-4 ; II: From the Peasant War 1525 to the transition to the Kingdom of Bavaria 1814. 2004, ISBN 3 -8062-1477-8 ; III / 1–2: From the transition to Bavaria to the 21st century. 2007, ISBN 978-3-8062-1478-9 ), Theiss, Stuttgart 2001–2007, Volume 1, 2001, p 386-409 and 647-653, here: p. 404.
- ↑ Gundolf Keil: "blutken - bloedekijn". Notes on the etiology of the hyposphagma genesis in the 'Pommersfeld Silesian Eye Booklet' (1st third of the 15th century). With an overview of the ophthalmological texts of the German Middle Ages. In: Specialized prose research - Crossing borders. Volume 8/9, 2012/2013, pp. 7–175, here: pp. 9 and 129.
- ↑ Volker Zimmermann: Jewish doctors and their achievements in medicine in the Middle Ages. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 8, 1990, pp. 201-206, here: p. 202.
- ^ Georg Ludwig Kriegk: German citizenship in the Middle Ages. Frankfurt am Main 1868, p. 2.
- ^ Moses Alter Spira (1968), p. 152.
- ^ Felix Aaron Theilhaber (1930), Col. 35.
- ↑ Volker Zimmermann (1990), p. 202.
- ^ Gundolf Keil: The woman as a doctor and patient in the medical prose of the German Middle Ages. In: Harry Kühnel , Franz Hundsnurscher (Hrsg.): Woman and everyday life in the late Middle Ages. International Congress Krems an der Donau 2. – 5. October 1984. (= meeting reports of the Austrian Academy of Sciences: philosophical-historical class. 473; = publications of the Institute for Medieval Realienkunde Austria. Volume 9). Vienna 1986, pp. 157-211, here: pp. 204-211.
- ↑ Wolfgang Treue : Between Jewish tradition and Christian university: The academization of the Jewish medical profession in Frankfurt am Main in the early modern period. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 17, 1998, pp. 375-397.
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- ↑ Adolf Kober : Rheinische Jewish doctors mainly from the 17th and 18th century. In: Festschrift for the 75th anniversary of the Jüd.-Theol. Fraenckelscher Foundation seminar, II. Breslau 1929, pp. 173–236; here: p. 185 f.
- ↑ Johann Dryander : Practicierbüchlein outside read art scene piece. Frankfurt am Main 1589, p. 4 f. ("Therefore, to use a great modesty and reason here, so that one can trust life and limb with unfounded scartecks and unsophisticated Kelberaertzte, unskilled monks, Jews and women, etc. so sinfully").
- ^ Eberhard Wolff: Medicine and Doctors in German Judaism of the Reform Era. The architecture of a modern Jewish identity . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2014, ISBN 978-3-525-56943-6 ( limited preview in the Google book search).
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- ^ Luis García-Ballester, Lola Ferre, Eduard Feliu: Jewish Appreciation of Fourteenth-Century Scholastic Medicine. In: Osiris. Second Volume 6, 1990, pp. 85-117.
- ^ Eberhard Wolff: Medicine and Doctors in German Judaism of the Reform Era. The architecture of a modern Jewish identity . 1st edition. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2014, ISBN 978-3-647-56943-7 , pp. 106 , urn : nbn: de: 101: 1-201406134409 ( books.google.com ).
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- ↑ Wolf Davidson: On the bourgeois improvement of the Jews. Berlin, 1798 in the German Digital Library
- ^ Wolff: Medicine and Doctors in German Judaism of the Reform Era. The architecture of a modern Jewish identity. 2014, pp. 55-104.
- ^ Wolff: Medicine and Doctors in German Judaism of the Reform Era. The architecture of a modern Jewish identity. 2014, p. 10.
- ^ Wolff: Medicine and Doctors in German Judaism of the Reform Era. The architecture of a modern Jewish identity. 2014, p. Xx
- ↑ Phöbus Moses Philippson : The five books of Moses for school and home: new translation with explanations of the content of each chapter, time, place and natural history notes and a time table . Baumgärtner, Leipzig 1847.
- ↑ Kurt Aterman: Jan Evangelista Purkyně's votum (1847) on the admission of Jews to academic positions at the University of Breslau. In: Würzburg medical history reports. 11, 1993, pp. 311-331.
- ^ Michael A. Meyer: German-Jewish history in modern times . Ed .: Steven M. Lowenstein. tape 3 : Controversial integration: 1871–1918 . Beck, Munich 1997, ISBN 3-406-39705-0 , p. 158 ( books.google.com - Translated from the English by Holger Fliessbach).
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- ^ Fourth regulation to the Reich Citizenship Law. From July 25, 1938. In: documentArchiv.de , February 3, 2004.
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- ^ Matthias David: Max Hirsch (1877–1948): Social gynecology and women's studies as well as national and international reception of his work . In: Caris-Petra Heidel (Ed.): Jewish Medicine - Jewish in Medicine - Medicine of the Jews? (= Medicine and Judaism . Volume 10 ). Mabuse, Frankfurt 2010, ISBN 978-3-940529-85-5 , p. 161-166 .
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- ↑ Michael Wuliger, Conventional Medicine and Aryan Physics . Retrieved March 27, 2017.
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- ^ Albrecht Scholz, Caris P Heidel, (editor) Emigrantenschicksale (medicine and Judaism) , (limited preview) Verlag Mabuse, July 1, 2004, ISBN 3-935964-38-2 .
- ↑ Decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of February 14, 1968 ; see. for this purpose the Radbruch formula .
- ↑ Eduard Seidler. On behalf of the German Society for Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine: Jüdische Kinderärzte 1933–1945: Disenfranchised - fled - murdered = Jewish pediatricians - victims of persecution 1933–1945 . Karger, Basel, Freiburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-8055-8284-1 .
- ↑ Matthis Krischel, Friedrich Moll, Julia Bellmann, Albrecht Scholz, Dirk Schultheiss, on behalf of the German Society for Urology: Urologists in National Socialism: Between Adjustment and Expulsion . Hentrich and Hentrich, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-942271-39-4 .
- ↑ Thomas Beddies, Susanne Doetz, Christoph Kopke (eds.): Jüdische, Ärztinnen und Ärzte under National Socialism; Disenfranchisement, expulsion, murder. De Gruyter, Oldenburg (= European-Jewish Studies, Articles. Volume 12), ISBN 3-11-030605-0 . buchkatalog.de .
- ^ Norbert Frei: Hitler's elites after 1945 . dtv Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Company KG, June 4, 2014, ISBN 978-3-423-42552-0 , pp. 60-61.
- ↑ Florian Bruns, Medical History in Berlin , bebra, Berlin, 2014, ISBN 3-95410-053-3 , p. 30.
- ↑ Lists of displaced persons and those who have died ( Memento of the original from April 13, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Charité. Retrieved April 23, 2016.
- ↑ Dominik Groß, Personal Lexicon of Dentists in the “Third Reich” and in post-war Germany. Offenders, followers, exonerated, opposition, persecuted. Volume 1–3, Stuttgart, 2020
- ↑ Matthis Krischel, Mathias Schmidt, Dominik Gross: Medical specialist societies in National Socialism . LIT Verlag Münster, 2016, ISBN 978-3-643-13269-7 , pp. 154–155.
- ↑ Dominik Groß , Jens Westemeier , Mathias Schmidt : Dentistry and dentistry in National Socialism - A problem outline , In: Medicine and National Socialism, LIT Verlag Dr. W. Hopf, Berlin (2018) Volume 6, ISBN 978-3-643-13914-6 , pp. 20-22
- ↑ Dominik Groß, Dentists as perpetrators - interim results on the role of dentists in the “Third Reich” , Dtsch Zahnärztl Z 2018; 73: pp. 164–178, doi: 10.3238 / dzz.2018.5149
- ^ Research project on National Socialism , German Dental Association. Retrieved June 25, 2020.
- ^ Declaration by DGIM on the occasion of the opening of the exhibition "The German Society for Internal Medicine in the Nazi Era" on April 19, 2015 , DGIM. Retrieved June 24, 2020.
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- ^ Ingrid Kästner and Jürgen Kiefer (eds.): From Maimonides to Einstein - Jewish scholars and scientists in Europe. (= European Science Relations. Supplement 9). Shaker, Aachen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8440-3903-0 .
- ↑ Bereshit / Genesis 3 ( English ) qbible.com. Retrieved August 30, 2019.
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- ^ Yves Nordmann: Between Life and Death, Aspects of Jewish Medical Ethics. 2nd Edition. Verlag Peter Lang, Bern 1999, 2000, ISBN 3-906765-04-0 .
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- ↑ Jewish Holidays , Chabad.org. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
- ↑ Fred Rosner , Moshe Tandler: Au Backe! In: Jüdische Allgemeine . August 30, 2007. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
- ↑ What Christians have been saying about abortion for 2000 years , mamma.ch. Retrieved April 12, 2016.
- ↑ MT, Hil. Rotzeach uschemirath nefesch 1, 9.
- ↑ Tom Kucera, Does Judaism Allow Euthanasia? , Lecture at the conference “End-of-Life: Jewish Perspectives”, May 2015 at the Bielefeld Clinic. haGalil, June 8, 2015. Accessed April 13, 2016.
- ↑ Is Organ Donation a Mitzva (a good deed or obligation)? HODS - Halachic Organ Donor Society, Retrieved October 18, 2019.
- ^ Moshe David Pendler, Organ donation is a mitzvah , Jüdische Allgemeine. Retrieved April 13, 2016.
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- ↑ Israelitische Kultusgemeinde Wien (Ed.): Koscherliste , pp. 12–24. Retrieved October 8, 2018.
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- ^ Jewish Nobel prize winners in physiology or medicine . jinfo.org. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
- ^ Nobel Prize laudation A. Kornberg. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
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- ^ Nobel Prize laudation , Goldstein and Brown. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
- ^ Nobel Prize laudatory speech , Schekman and Rothman. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
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- ↑ Axel Hinrich Murken : From Hekdesch to the general hospital. Jewish hospitals in Germany through their 800-year history from the 13th century to the Second World War. RWTH Aachen University, Historia hospitalium 19.1993 / 94, pp. 115–142.
- ↑ Dovid Rossoff: Where heaven touches earth: Jewish life present in Jerusalem from medieval times to the . Feldheim Publishers, 2001, ISBN 978-0-87306-879-6 , pp. 242 (English, books.google.com ).
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- ↑ Guide through the Jewish community administration and welfare in Germany: 1932–1933 . Central Welfare Office of German Jews, 1933 ( google.com ).
- ^ History of the Jewish Hospital Berlin . Retrieved March 24, 2017.
- ^ Guide to the Jewish Hospital Association (Cincinnati, OH) , (1904), American Jewish Historical Society .
- ^ Edward C. Halperin: Jewish Hospitals Are Becoming Extinct . In: The Jewish Week. October 7, 2015.
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- ↑ Stefan Elfenbein: The accumulation of hereditary diseases in their ranks unsettles many Jews in the USA. They fear discrimination and the ruin of their culture . In: Berliner Zeitung. December 2, 1998. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
- ↑ Sherry I. Brandt-Rauf, Victoria H. Raveis u. a .: Ashkenazi Jews and Breast Cancer: The Consequences of Linking Ethnic Identity to Genetic Disease. In: American Journal of Public Health. 96, 2006, p. 1979, doi: 10.2105 / AJPH.2005.083014 .
- ↑ Bible text, Psalm
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- ^ Jewish Genetics, Dor Yeshorim
- ^ B. Leiber: The clinical syndromes. Syndromes, sequences and symptom complexes. Volume 2: Symptoms. Edited by G. Burg, J. Kunze, D. Pongratz, PG Scheurlen, A. Schinzel, J. Spranger. 7th edition. Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1990, ISBN 3-541-01727-9 .
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