List of personalities of the city of Turin

This list includes personalities born in Turin and those who worked in Turin but were born elsewhere. The list does not claim to be complete.

Personalities born in Turin

King Viktor Amadeus II

King Viktor Amadeus III

Joseph-Louis Lagrange

King Karl Albert

Camillo Benso from Cavogiur

King Umberto I.

Felice Nazzaro

Vittorio Pozzo

Amadeus, Duke of Aosta

Carlo Levi

Rita Levi-Montalcini

Gian-Carlo Wick

Salvador Luria

Gianni Agnelli

Carlo Maria Martini

Ludovico Scarfiotti

Gianni Vattimo

Giuliano Amato

Livio Berruti

Paolo Martin

Carlo Actis Dato

Ludovico Einaudi

Alessandro Barbero

Valeria Bruni Tedeschi

Carla Bruni

Gigi D'Agostino

Claudio Marchisio

Until 1800

Cristoforo della Rovere (1434–1478), cardinal of the Catholic Church
Charles II (1488–1496), Duke of Savoy
Viktor Amadeus I (1587–1637), Duke of Savoy
Cassiano dal Pozzo (1588–1657), scholar and patron
Margaret of Savoy (1589–1655), Duchess of Mantua and Monferrat
Emanuele Tesauro (1592–1675), rhetorician, writer, historian and playwright
Thomas Franz (1596–1656), nobleman
Ludovica Cristina of Savoy (1629–1692), princess of the House of Savoy
Franz Hyazinth (1632–1638), nobleman
Charles Emanuel II (1634–1675), Duke of Savoy
Henriette Adelheid of Savoy (1636–1676), Electress of Bavaria
Charles Maurice Le Tellier (1642–1710), Archbishop of Reims
Ercole Turinetti de Prié (1658–1726), diplomat
Viktor Amadeus II (1666–1732), Duke of Savoy and King of Sicily and Sardinia
Charles Thomas Maillard de Tournon (1668–1710), cardinal of the Catholic Church
Maria Adelaide of Savoy (1685–1712), Princess of Savoy
Joseph Anton Gabaleon von Wackerbarth-Salmour (1685–1761), cabinet minister of the Electoral Saxony, chief steward and envoy
Giovanni Battista Somis (1686–1763), violinist and composer
Maria Luisa Gabriella of Savoy (1688–1714), Queen of Spain
Giovanni Lorenzo Somis (1688–1775), violinist and composer
Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier (1695–1750), draftsman, painter, sculptor, goldsmith and architect
Vittorio Amedeo Costa (1698–1777), General and Viceroy of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont
Charles Emanuel III. (1701–1773), Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia-Piedmont
Jean-Pierre Guignon (1702–1774), violinist and composer
Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer (around 1705–1755), French composer, harpsichordist and singer
Carlo Antonio Bertinazzi (1710–1783), actor
Carlo Vittorio Amedeo delle Lanze (1712–1784), cardinal of the Catholic Church
Felice Giardini (1716–1796), violinist, composer and opera director
Raphael Bachi (1717–1767), miniature painter
Giuseppe Baretti (1719–1789), poet
Carlo Giuseppe Filippa della Martiniana (1724–1802), Bishop of Vercelli and Cardinal
Viktor Amadeus III. (1726–1796), King of Sardinia-Piedmont and Duke of Savoy
Carlo Allioni (1728–1804), doctor, zoologist, paleontologist and botanist
Gaetano Pugnani (1731–1798), violinist and composer
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813), mathematician and astronomer
Marie-Louise of Savoy-Carignan (1749–1792), Princess of Savoy-Carignan
Charles Emanuel IV (1751–1819), King of Sardinia and Duke of Savoy
Maria Josepha of Savoy (1753–1810), Countess of Provence
Maria Theresa of Savoy (1756–1805), princess of Sardinia
Francesco Galeazzi (1758–1819), music theorist and composer
Victor Emanuel I (1759–1824), King of Sardinia and Duke of Savoy
Maria Carolina of Savoy (1764–1782), Princess of Sardinia
Karl Felix (1765–1831), King of Sardinia and Duke of Savoy
Felice Radicati (1775–1823), violinist and composer
Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856), physicist and chemist
Pedro de Sousa Holstein (1781–1850), Margrave of Palmela
Amadeo Peyron (1785–1870), orientalist and linguist
Cesare Balbo (1789-1853), statesman, historian and writer
Alberto La Marmora (1789–1863), general, senator and naturalist
Maria Beatrix of Savoy (1792–1840), Duchess of Modena
Bartolomeo Bosco (1793–1863), magician
Alessandro Asinari di San Marzano (1795–1876), Archbishop of the Curia
Karl Albert (1798–1849), King of Sardinia and Duke of Savoy
Massimo d'Azeglio (1798–1866), writer, painter and politician
Alessandro La Marmora (1799–1855), General

19th century

1801 to 1850

Giuseppe Concone (1801–1861), singing master
Paul-Émile Botta (1802–1870), French doctor, politician and archaeologist
Alfonso La Marmora (1804–1878), politician and general
Léon de Saint-Lubin (1805–1850), violinist and composer
Giovanni Cavalli (1808–1879), lieutenant general and inventor
Camillo Benso von Cavour (1810–1861), statesman
Matteo Eustachio Gonella (1811–1870), Curia Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church
Ildephons Borgna (1817-1894), Catholic Titular Archbishop and Apostolic Vicar
Cesare Bonelli (1821–1904), Minister of War
Carlo Felice Nicolis Robilant (1826–1888), general and statesman
Leonardo Murialdo (1828–1900), Roman Catholic priest and founder of an order
Carlo Ceppi (1829–1921), architect
Roberto Morra di Lavriano (1830–1917), military and politician
Benedetto Brin (1833–1898), Admiral
Michael Rua (1837–1910), Superior General
Angelo De Gubernatis (1840–1913), orientalist, poet and literary historian
Richard zu Dohna-Schlobitten (1843–1916), politician
Umberto I (1844–1900), King of Italy
Amadeus I (1845–1890), King of Spain
Maria Pia of Savoy (1847–1911), Princess of Italy and Queen of Portugal
Agostino Richelmy (1850–1923), cardinal of the Catholic Church

1851 to 1900

Alberto Pestalozza (1851–1934), composer
Leonardo Fea (1852–1903), explorer, zoologist, draftsman and animal collector
Edoardo Pulciano (1852–1911), Bishop of Casale Monferrato, Novara and Archbishop of Genoa
Medardo Rosso (1858–1928), Italian-French sculptor
Paolo Thaon di Revel (1859–1948), Grand Admiral and Senator
Alberto Franchetti (1860–1942), composer
Félix Fénéon (1861–1944), French anarchist, journalist and art critic
Nicola Spinelli (1865–1909), composer, pianist and conductor
Pietro Fenoglio (1865–1927), architect
Arturo Ambrosio (1869–1960), producer and director
Giacomo Balla (1871-1958), painter
Luigi Barlassina (1872–1947), Patriarch of Jerusalem
Calisto Bertramo (1875–1941), actor
Beppo Levi (1875–1961), mathematician
Marius Besson (1876–1945), bishop
Renzo Chiosso (1877–1949), screenwriter, writer and film director
Vanni Marcoux (1877–1962), French singer
Vittorio Ambrosio (1879-1958), General
Carlo Biscaretti di Ruffia (1879–1959), industrial designer and graphic artist
Alessandro Guidoni (1880–1928), aviation pioneer and general
Felice Nazzaro (1881–1940), racing car driver
Giovanni Vitrotti (1882–1966), cameraman
Alessandro Cagno (1883–1971), racing car driver
Alfredo Casella (1883–1947), composer, pianist, conductor, music writer and music critic
Eugenio Elia Levi (1883–1917), mathematician and physicist
Nina Ricci (1883–1970), designer
Giovanni Germanetto (1885–1959), politician, trade unionist and author
Gustavo Colonnetti (1886–1968), civil engineer
Vittorio Pozzo (1886–1968), football player and coach
Carl von Salis (1886–1941), painter and draftsman
Benvenuto Terracini (1886–1968), linguist and Romanist
Pietro Bordino (1887–1928), racing car driver
Federico Della Ferrera (1887–1965), cyclist and motorcycle racer, engineer and entrepreneur
Giacinto Ghia (1887–1944), coachbuilder
Angelo Gremo (1887–1940), racing cyclist
Evasio Lampiano (1888–1923), racing car driver
Nino Oxilia (1889–1917), film director and author
Marco Elter (1890–1945), film director and skier
Enrico Giaccone (1890–1923), racing car driver
Biagio Nazzaro (1890–1922), automobile and motorcycle racing driver
Carlo Salamano (1890–1969), racing car driver
Carlo Maria Franzero (1892–1986), journalist and writer
Luigi Maiocco (1892-1965), Turner
Ettore Ovazza (1892–1943), banker and entrepreneur
Alessandro Butti (1893–1959), typographer
Tancredi Pasero (1893–1983), opera singer
Alfredo Pezzana (1893–1986), fencer
Battista Pininfarina (1893–1966), coachbuilder
Pitigrilli (actually Dino Segre; 1893–1975), writer and journalist
Leopoldo Torricelli (1893–1930), racing cyclist
Léon Camille Marius Croizat (1894–1982), Franco-Italian botanist
Edoardo Lamberti (1895–1968), cameraman
Alberto Massimino (1895–1975), car and engine designer
Manlio Giovanni Brosio (1897–1980), politician and NATO Secretary General
Ferruccio Novo (1897–1974), football coach and official
Amadeus, 3rd Duke of Aosta (1898–1942), Governor and Viceroy of Italian East Africa
Henri Théodore Pigozzi (1898–1964), Franco-Italian merchant and industrialist
Piero Sraffa (1898–1983), economist
Cesare Meano (1899–1957), screenwriter and theater director
Gabriele Mucchi (1899–2002), painter, graphic artist and architect
Aimone, 4th Duke of Aosta and Duke of Spoleto (1900–1948), designated King of Croatia

20th century

1901 to 1910

Ennio Cerlesi (1901–1951), actor and voice actor
Pier Giorgio Frassati (1901–1925), student and alpinist
Piero Gobetti (1901–1926), publicist and politician
Medardo Griotto (1901-1943), anti-fascist
Giampiero Combi (1902–1956), football goalkeeper
Mario Craveri (1902–1990), cameraman and documentary filmmaker
Alessandro Passerin d'Entrèves (1902–1985), legal philosopher and Romance scholar
Carlo Levi (1902–1975), writer, painter and politician
Erminio Macario (1902–1980), actor and comedian
Celeste Rinaldi (1902–1977), Egyptologist, civil engineer and architect
Mario Ferrero (1903–1964), football player
Leo Menardi (1903–1954), film director and producer
Beniamino Segre (1903–1977), mathematician
Mario Segre (1904–1944), epigrapher
Carlo Borghesio (1905–1983), screenwriter and film director
Max Calandri (1906−?), Filmmaker
Giuseppe Farina (1906–1966), racing car driver
Mario Soldati (1906–1999), writer, screenwriter and director
Ludovico Geymonat (1908–1991), philosopher
Aurelio Peccei (1908-1984), industrialist
Tullio Pinelli (1908–2009), writer and screenwriter
Franco Rol (1908–1977), racing car driver
Giulio Carlo Argan (1909–1992), art historian and politician
Norberto Bobbio (1909–2004), legal philosopher and publicist
Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012), neurologist, neurobiologist and Nobel Prize winner
Gian-Carlo Wick (1909–1992), physicist
Vittorio Foa (1910–2008), politician
Ugo Sasso (* 1910), actor
Angelo Varetto (1910–2001), racing cyclist

1911 to 1920

Pierre Marie Gallois (1911-2010), French brigadier general
Rina Ketty (1911–1996), French chanson singer
Aly Khan (1911-1960), Prince of Pakistan
Ugo Fano (1912-2001), physicist
Mario Genta (1912–1993), football player and coach
Salvador Edward Luria (1912–1991), American microbiologist
Mauro Racca (1912-1977), fencer
Alfredo Bai (1913–1980), artist
Pietro Frua (1913–1983), automobile designer
Marcello Giannini (1913–1985), filmmaker
Giuseppe Bertone (1914–1997), automobile designer and constructor
Marcel Bich (1914–1994), French industrialist and sailor
Franco Levi (1914–2009), civil engineer
Giovanni Pugliese (1914–1995), legal scholar, legal historian and university professor
Giuseppe Valdengo (1914–2007), opera singer
Caterina Boratto (1915-2010), actress
Mag Bodard , b. as Marguerite Perato (1916–2019), French film producer
Guglielmo Gabetto (1916-1949), football player
Giorgio Colli (1917–1979), philosopher, teacher, literary scholar and translator
Robert Fano (1917–2016), professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Amelia Piccinini (1917–1979), track and field athlete
Giovanni Cheli (1918-2013), diplomat
Carol Rama (1918–2015), painter
Primo Levi (1919–1987), writer and chemist
Carlo Savina (1919–2002), film composer
Paolo Soleri (1919–2013), architect
Carlo Alberto Chiesa (1920–1960), film editor and screenwriter

1921 to 1930

Giovanni Agnelli (1921–2003), industrialist
Giuseppe Delfino (1921–1999), fencer
Giovanni Michelotti (1921–1980), automobile designer
Carlo Parola (1921-2000), football player and coach
Piero Piccioni (1921–2004), film composer and lawyer
Ercole Rabitti (1921–2009), football player and coach
Susanna Agnelli (1922–2009), politician
Fernaldo Di Giammatteo (1922–2005), film critic, historian and documentary filmmaker
Primo Nebiolo (1923–1999), sports official
Franco Sibilla (1923–2008), Bishop of Asti
Adalberto Albertini (1924–1999), cameraman and film director
Paolo Molinari SJ (1924-2014), Jesuit and theologian
Oscar Valdambrini (1924–1997), trumpeter
Angelo Conterno (1925–2007), racing cyclist
Paolo Gobetti (1925–1995), film journalist and documentary filmmaker
Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo (1925–2017), cardinal, diplomat of the Holy See
Carlo Fruttero (1926–2012), writer, editor, translator and publicist
Marisa Merz (1926–2019), sculptor and installation artist
Piero Operto (1926-1949), football player
Nini Rosso (1926–1994), jazz trumpeter and composer
Alfieri Canavero (* 1927), cameraman
Guido Ceronetti (1927–2018), aphorist, poet, writer, dramaturge and journalist
Jacek Karpiński (1927–2010), Polish pioneer in computer science
Carlo Maria Martini (1927–2012), Archbishop of Milan
Luigi Scattini (1927-2010), film director
Graziella Sciutti (1927-2001), soprano
Felice Andreasi (1928–2005), actor
Gianni Bongioanni (1921-2018), director
Sergio Fubini (1928–2005), physicist
Gino Munaron (1928–2009), racing car driver
Adolfo Sarti (1928–1992), lawyer and politician
Domenico Corcione (1929-2020), General
Ferruccio Amendola (1930–2001), actor and voice actor

1931 to 1940

Giorgio Ardisson (1931-2014), actor
Tullio Regge (1931-2014), physicist
Carlo-Maria Abate (1932–2019), racing car driver
Nino Defilippis (1932–2010), racing cyclist
Walter Basano (* 1933), coachbuilder and automobile designer (including Carrozzeria Sibona-Basano )
Ludovico Scarfiotti (1933–1968), Formula 1 and sports car racing driver
Francesco Valdambrini (1933–2007), composer and music teacher
Carlo De Benedetti (* 1934), entrepreneur and engineer
Flavio Emoli (1934-2015), football player
Ferruccio Casacci (1934–2011), actor and filmmaker
Aldo Maccione (* 1935), actor
Marisa Allasio (born 1936), actress
Luciano Fabro (1936–2007), painter and object artist
Achille Occhetto (* 1936), politician
Glauco Onorato (1936–2009), actor
Guido Scala (1936–2001), caricaturist
Carlo Simonigh (1936–2014), track cyclist
Gianni Vattimo (* 1936), philosopher, author and politician
Valerio Zanone (1936–2016), politician, mayor of Turin, environment minister and defense minister of Italy
Giulio Berruti (* 1937), screenwriter and film director
Carlo Mattrel (1937–1976), football player
Giuliano Amato (* 1938), politician
Anna Bravo (1938–2019), historian, university lecturer, feminist and author
Ernesto Ferrero (* 1938), writer and literary critic
Marcello Gandini (* 1938), automobile designer
Massimo Manuelli (* 1938), film director
Carlo Becchi (* 1939), physicist
Livio Berruti (* 1939), athlete
Corrado Farina (1939–2016), film director, screenwriter and novelist
Cesare Fiorio (* 1939), manager in Formula 1
Carlo Ginzburg (* 1939), historian and cultural scientist
Giorgio Rossano (1939-2016), football player
Alighiero Boetti (1940–1994), graphic artist, painter and object artist
Margherita Oggero (* 1940), writer and teacher

1941 to 1950

Salvatore Accardo (* 1941), violinist and conductor
Cesare Salvadori (* 1941), fencer
Italo Zilioli (* 1941), racing cyclist
Milena Canonero (* 1942), costume designer
Sandro Mazzola (* 1942), football player
Roberto Faenza (* 1943), film director and screenwriter
Paolo Martin (* 1943), designer
Franco Patria (1943–1964), rally and circuit racing driver
Costanzo Preve (1943–2013), philosopher and political theorist
Franco Barberi (* 1944), documentary filmmaker
Piero Soria (* 1944), journalist and writer
Ferruccio Mazzola (1945–2013), football player and coach
Rita Pavone (* 1945), pop singer
Riccardo Zegna (* 1946), jazz musician
Mario Borghezio (* 1947), politician
Flavio Bucci (1947-2020), actor
Franco Cagnotto (* 1947), high diver
Antonio Carella (* 1949), film director and documentary filmmaker
Luigi Taverna (* 1949), automobile racing driver
Roberto Bettega (* 1950), football player
Gianfranco Brancatelli (* 1950), racing car driver

1951 to 1960

Oscar Avogadro (1951–2010), songwriter and screenwriter
Lorenzo Ferrero (* 1951), composer and librettist
Alessandro Corbelli (* 1952), baritone
Carlo Actis Dato (* 1952), musician and composer
Diego Gambetta (* 1952), social scientist
Pierluigi Pairetto (* 1952), football referee
Umberto Tozzi (* 1952), musician
Claudio Graziano (* 1953), Chief of Staff of the Italian Army
Carlo Chenis (1954–2010), religious priest and bishop
Claudio Lodati (* 1954), jazz guitarist
Massimo Mazzucco (* 1954), film director and screenwriter
Bruno Sarda (* 1954), comic book author
Domenico Siniscalco (* 1954), economist
Ludovico Einaudi (* 1955), composer and pianist
Claudio Garella (* 1955), soccer goalkeeper
Paola Piglia (* 1955), artist
Corrado Franco (* 1956), film director and screenwriter
Andrea Pininfarina (1957–2008), entrepreneur
Alberto Bader (* 1959), advertising photographer and film director
Alessandro Barbero (* 1959), historian and university professor
Guido Chiesa (* 1959), director
Piergiorgio Gay (* 1959), film director and screenwriter
Marco Rizzo (* 1959), politician
Valerio Varesi (* 1959), journalist and crime novel writer
Elena Loewenthal (* 1960), writer, journalist, editor and translator
Gianfranco Miletto (* 1960), Judaist, author and professor

1961 to 1970

Flavio Boltro (* 1961), jazz trumpeter
Giancarlo Camolese (* 1961), football player and coach
Alba Parietti (* 1961), singer, actress and television presenter
Marco Brunetti (* 1962), Roman Catholic clergyman, Bishop of Alba
Roberto Serniotti (* 1962), volleyball coach
Maria Curatolo (* 1963), long-distance runner
Pietro Ferrero junior (1963-2011), entrepreneur
Giulio Base (* 1964), actor and film director
Andrea Molino (* 1964), composer and conductor
Valeria Bruni Tedeschi (* 1964), Italian-French actress, film director, screenwriter and singer
Marco Travaglio (* 1964), journalist, publicist and writer
Giuseppe Caire (* 1965), communications engineer
Giuseppe Culicchia (* 1965), bestselling author and freelance journalist
Alex Fiorio (* 1965), rally driver
Michele Rabbia (* 1965), jazz drummer
Michele Padovano (born 1966), football player
Carla Bruni (* 1967), musician and model
Gigi D'Agostino (* 1967), DJ, remixer and music producer
Marina Meinander (* 1967), dramaturge
Roberto Rosetti (* 1967), football referee

From 1971

Ezio Bosso (1971–2020), composer, pianist, conductor, double bass player
Laura Chiesa (* 1971), fencer
Stefania Rocca (* 1971), actress
Alberto Cirio (* 1972), politician
Barbara Merlin (* 1972), ski racer
Fabio Geda (* 1972), writer
Fabrizio Bosso (* 1973), jazz trumpeter
Andrea Agnelli (* 1975), industrialist and football official
Dom Capuano (* 1975), music producer and composer
Alessandra Merlin (* 1975), ski racer
Simone Loria (* 1976), football player
Matteo Fornasier (* 1977), legal scholar
Nadia Cortassa (* 1978), triathlete
Nicola Drocco (* 1979), skeleton driver
Marta Capurso (* 1980), short tracker
Roberto Rolfo (* 1980), motorcycle racer
Federico Balzaretti (* 1981), football player
Andrea Gasbarroni (* 1981), soccer player
Edoardo Molinari (* 1981), professional golfer
Roberto Negro (* 1981), jazz musician
Marco Bianco (* 1982), cyclocross driver and sports soldier
Paolo Giordano (* 1982), writer
Francesco Molinari (* 1982), professional golfer
Francesco Dracone (* 1983), racing car driver
Alessandro Gazzi (* 1983), football player
Andrea Mantovani (* 1984), football player
Fabio Cerutti (* 1985), athlete
Claudio Marchisio (* 1986), football player
Robert Acquafresca (* 1987), football player
Sebastian Giovinco (* 1987), football player
Davide Lanzafame (* 1987), football player
Dario Venitucci (* 1987), football player
Lorenzo Ariaudo (* 1989), football player
Fabio Felline (* 1990), racing cyclist
Luca Marrone (* 1990), football player
Fausto Rossi (* 1990), football player
Simone Benedetti (* 1992), soccer player
Ambra Gutierrez (* 1992), model
Andrea Vavassori (* 1995), tennis player
Francesco Bagnaia (* 1997), motorcycle racer
Linda Olivieri (* 1998), track and field athlete
Silvia Crosio (* 1999), rower

Well-known residents of Turin

Don Giovanni Bosco

Luigi Einaudi

Maximus of Turin († around 420), first bishop of Turin, church writer, saint
Erasmus of Rotterdam (around 1467–1536), theologian, philosopher, philologist and author
Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821), statesman, writer and philosopher
Giovanni Battista Viotti (1755–1824), violinist and composer
Antoine Dupuch (1800–1856), Bishop of Algiers
Niccolò Tommaseo (1802–1874), writer
Carlo Pellion di Persano (1806–1883), Admiral and Minister of the Navy
Ascanio Sobrero (1812-1888), chemist
Johannes Bosco (1815–1888), Catholic priest and founder of an order
Lodovico Frapolli (1815–1878), politician, Freemason, co-founder of the Lodge Grande Oriente d'Italia
Vincenzo Vela (1820–1891), sculptor and professor at the Accademia Albertina
Francesco Faà di Bruno (1825–1888), officer, mathematician, engineer, inventor, educator, composer and clergyman
Hugo Schiff (1834–1915), German chemist
Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909), doctor and professor
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), classical philologist
Edmondo De Amicis (1846-1908), writer
Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), engineer, economist and sociologist
Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932), mathematician
Emilio Salgari (1862-1911), writer
Rosario Scalero (1870–1954), violinist, music teacher and composer
Luigi Einaudi (1874–1961), President and finance scientist
Guido Fubini (1879–1943), mathematician
Luigi Spazzapan (1889–1958), painter and sculptor
Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), writer, journalist, politician and philosopher
Giulio Natta (1903-1979), chemist
Cesare Pavese (1908–1950), writer
Natalia Ginzburg (1916–1991), author
Luigi Pareyson (1918–1991), philosopher
Italo Calvino (1923–1985), writer
Achille Perilli (* 1927), painter and graphic artist
Giulio Paolini (* 1940), painter, sculptor, object and concept artist
Piergiorgio Odifreddi (* 1950), mathematician, logician and historian of science