Prehistory of Italy
The prehistory of Italy covers the entire period from the earliest human traces to the onset of a broader written tradition . Therefore, it differs from the history of Italy, which is based on written sources , both in the nature of its source material, according to its methodology, and in which questions can be asked meaningfully. A written tradition began before the end of the prehistory of Italy, and on the other hand the science that deals primarily with this long phase, archeology , also with later times, but for Italy the time around 500 BC. Established as an approximate boundary between prehistory and history .
The oldest human traces in Italy go back about 1.3 to 1.7 million years and are thus after the caves of Dmanisi (Georgia, 1.85 million years) and Kozarnika (Bulgaria, 0.75-1.6 million years) ?), the oldest in Europe. They were found at the Pirro Nord site in northern Apulia and could be dated in 2009. Finds from Neanderthals and modern humans complement the older finds, which have now become more numerous, so that, at least in the southern half of the country, it is assumed that there has been continuous settlement for over 700,000 years. Isernia la Pineta in Molise turned out to be the most profitable archaeological site , as the finds there provided extensive information on diet and lifestyle.
By the Middle Paleolithic at the latest , people lived in all of Italy's ecoregions , apart from the large islands of Sardinia and Sicily, which are probably not yet accessible . With the Neanderthals, the big game hunt came to the fore, which was particularly suitable for the cold and dry phases of the last glacial period . The 130,000 year old man from Altamura is the oldest surviving corpse on the Apennine Peninsula. With the Upper Palaeolithic, the techniques of stone processing changed again, and references to body decoration and painting appear. At the latest 43,000 to 45,000 years ago, Cro-Magnon people lived next to the Neanderthals in Italy, as has been proven by two teeth since 2011. They are the oldest evidence to date. Works of art, such as cave paintings , remained very rare, apart from some petroglyphs .
From the late 7th millennium BC The rural way of life with villages, cultivation of land and the domestication of animals in the south can first be demonstrated in Apulia. The greatest density of settlements existed in the Tavoliere plain with its more than 500 settlements reinforced with ditches, with the high point around 5600 BC. BC, but around 5000 BC Were abandoned. The time of the first settlement of the islands is a matter of dispute. The number of finds that can be attributed to these older farming cultures is increasing. More than 100 graves with more than 400 corpses are known from this era. In northern Italy, the successors of the last Mesolithic culture, the Castelnovian culture (6600–5600 BC), the early Neolithic cultures, such as the Vhò culture, the Fiorano, the Gaban and the "Civate group" ( Necropolis of Manerba del Garda ). There are still no signs of a hierarchization of society, but extensive long-distance trade in obsidian can be proven and an ancestor cult is likely.
From the 3rd millennium onwards, a society emerged whose hierarchy was based on the accumulation of prestige and wealth, as can be seen from the tombs. Megalithic systems were built in Saint Martin de Corléans as well as in Sardinia, Sicily and Apulia . First copper became the characteristic material, then bronze . In the north lived the " Ötzi " who carried a copper ax with him.
During the around 2300 BC At the beginning of the Bronze Age, proto-urban structures and long-distance trading networks emerged. Southern Italy maintained cultural contacts with Greece. Megalithic systems emerged on the mainland only in Apulia and in the extreme north-west, but monumental structures were built on Sardinia, stilt houses and fortified villages on the waters of the north, especially around Lake Garda .
The Iron Age or the late Bronze Age is considered to be the formation phase of the tribes, which appear in the sources and which go back to the movements of peoples on the continent, during which Indo-European groups reached Italy. For some, however, like the Etruscans , the origin is unclear. Princely aristocratic rulers emerged, with a hierarchy of centers becoming recognizable in Tuscany . Cities emerged there as well as in Lazio and Campania ; the Greek city-states expanded in the south and on Sicily. In the north, the Celts , in the south, the Osker and Umbrians, again caused large-scale movements of peoples. From the 8th century onwards, the Etruscans created a complex culture that affected Rome and thus later Europe.
Paleolithic
Early Paleolithic
It is possible that more than 1.3 million years ago human hunters followed elephants and steppe wisps that migrated south and west from West Asia. So they migrated from the east (see Hominin Fossils of Dmanissi ) to Italy, southern France and Spain. At the time of the first immigration of human groups, Italy was still considerably narrower, the Abruzzi had not yet risen, the Adriatic only reached as far as the area of Monte Gargano , not far from Pirro Nord , where the oldest human artifacts in Italy were found. They have been dated to 1.3 to 1.7 million years ago.
At the time when the oldest known tools in the Paleolithic, discovered on Monte Poggiolo , until 2006 , were made about 850,000 years ago, the Apennines began to rise . The shallow sea, interspersed with islands, which covered large parts of what would later become the peninsula, disappeared. For the first time, the Po plain could have been used as a tail area, because the areas near the Alps and Abruzzo were impassable. The first glaciation on the southern edge of the Alps began around 800,000 years ago. Mastodons and elephants, bison and horses immigrated again from Asia and the colder and drier areas of Europe.
When Italy was visited by humans (for the first time permanently?), The peninsula underwent major geological changes. Etna was formed around 700,000 years ago, and Vesuvius is only 25,000 years old. The ashes spat out by them could be dated, so that the age of Italian sites can usually be determined relatively easily and precisely.
Ca 'Belvedere di Monte Poggiolo between Bologna and Rimini, 15 km north-west of Forlì , which is now about 40 km from the coast, was considered the oldest site for around two decades . But at that time the coast was close. Around 5200 mostly very small cuts, tools and their preliminary products were discovered there. Paleomagnetic investigations have shown that the site must be at least 780,000 years old; the layer below (Argille Azzurre) is 1.3 to 1.4 million years old. Nearby deposits suggested a further limitation to 1.1 to 1.2 million years. In 2011, however, the age could be determined closer to around 850,000 years.
The oldest places of discovery include Monte Poggiolo, the Grotta del Colombo ( Trentino ), Visogliano ( Trieste ) where, between 300,000 and 700,000 years old, perhaps the oldest human remains in Italy were found, such as the jawbone and a single tooth, then Fontana Ranuccio (Colle Marino, 60 km southeast of Rome, some teeth were also found there). Human remains were also found in the Cava Pompi , Castro dei Volsci near Pofi, southeast of Rome ( parietal bone , shin , ulna , 400,000 years old). Finally, there are Isernia la Pineta ( Molise , 500,000 to 740,000), the elephant hunting ground Atella (700,000 years old) in Basilicata and Venosa Loreto , also in Basilicata (500 to 550,000) near Venosa-Notarchirico , where a piece of a human thigh bone was found , which has been dated inconsistently, as well as the remains of 84 elephants, among the most important sites. The Grotta Paglicci , also at Monte Gargano, has revealed around 45,000 finds in the last 40 years.
During the extreme phases of glaciation, the sea level was around 120 m lower than today, but fluctuated very strongly due to the warm periods and the resulting glacier retreats . Therefore, Elba and Sicily were not islands in the cold ages, the Adriatic Sea began only south of Monte Gargano . The most important sites of the Neanderthals are the Grotta Guattari (Cave of Guattari) near San Felice Circeo south of Rome, the Grotta di Fumane (Cave of Fumane ) near Verona , the Cave San Bernardino near Vicenza .
In the early phase of human settlement, the directly tangible raw materials such as stone, wood, bones (proven for Fontana Ranuccio ) and antlers were used to manufacture tools and weapons. Also, hand axes , known since about 900,000 years in Spain were made of bone and found themselves three Acheuléen RESIDENTIAL LEISURE. In Visogliano, on the other hand, volcanic rock was used that was at least 40 km away. It was unprocessed and was evidently carried as a precaution. On the other hand, mostly finished tools were found, the production must accordingly have taken place in other places and beforehand.
Hunting tracks are extremely rare. Large quantities of elephant, rhinoceros and bison bones were found in Isernia la Pineta , which apparently had been sorted. There were hardly any traces of processing to be found on hardly a dozen bones; in many cases they were due to animal bites, sand debris or the effects of stones or water. The few sure traces point to the search for bone marrow . Venosa Loreto A was possibly a slaughterhouse, similar to Venosa-Notarchirico. Despite some indications, the use of fire is not guaranteed. From about 700,000 to 300,000 before today, microliths were made from flint , less often those made from dolomite .
Apparently, as the comparatively large number of traces found in Italy show, the small groups of people were represented in all eco-zones between the swampy terrain in the northeast and the Apennine ridge as well as the extreme south. Since the seasons were very distinctive, seasonal hikes can be expected. The first dwellings arose at least 230,000 years ago, as has been shown by finds near Nice ( Terra Amata ), although their dating of 380,000 years has been contradicted. The everyday use of fire finally established itself at this time at the latest. During this time there is no evidence of any kind of ritual contact with the dead.
Middle Paleolithic
.JPG)
Since the vast majority of human traces consist of stone artifacts , changes in stone tool technology serve as an indicator of a new phase in history. Around 300,000 to 200,000 years ago, the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic with the onset of the Levallois technique , however, according to research up to 2008, only appeared 80,000 years ago in southern Italy. In the meantime, however, there is evidence of the Levallois technique at least 30,000 years older, for example from the Grotta Romanelli in Apulia. The traditional division into the Italian north with its Levallois technique and the south, in which this was only used much later, is thus obsolete.
This phase was ended about 40,000 years ago by another change, the Aurignacian , which is considered to be the first phase of the Upper Paleolithic . At that time, Cro-Magnons immigrated , the number in Italy estimated at 1,000, if not just 500. In the Middle Paleolithic, Neanderthals lived in Europe. Here, deductions and the tips as well as scraper characteristic. In addition to stone tools, they produced wooden tools and weapons, such as lances ; In addition, there were tools made of bone, ivory and antler, which were often connected to one another. The end of the Middle Paleolithic was marked by transition industries, in Italy mainly by the Uluzzien . It already bears hallmarks of the Upper Paleolithic.
With the Neanderthals at the latest, continuous settlement can be made likely, apart from the large islands of Sicily and Sardinia. Although some alpine areas and also the Abruzzo mountain ranges had to be largely cleared during the phases of the most extensive glaciation , the cold phases were never so extreme that people could not adapt. In addition, caves were increasingly and permanently used as living space. In addition, the tool technology was refined. Blades could be made, although there are few places in Italy with suitable material. In places where stone material that was easy to work with, such as Podere la Rosa (Borgo S. Maria in Latina ) or S. Andrea di Sabaudia, was used with great continuity without any evidence of long-distance trade. Clam shells were also used as tools if necessary, but they were not yet turned into jewelry.
Corpses with traces of predators were found in several places. But while before the people - probably because they feared predators - left the place of death, they now brought the dead to another place. Isotope studies have shown that the Neanderthals mainly ate meat, which fits in with the cooler surroundings and the corresponding flora. Overall, in the last few decades the image of Neanderthals hunting small animals has changed to big game hunters who, however, were ultimately unable to adequately adapt to the changing fauna and make sufficient use of its new resources (broad spectrum revolution). The thesis that they were mainly active as carrion collectors is also considered refuted. Hunting hoofed animals in an environment that offered little vegetarian food is now valued higher, while the hunt for bears was the exception - quite apart from the outdated assumption of a bear cult . However, there were marmots that were hunted for their fur, and the capture of crustaceans in Italy, as well as the hunt for hares, has been proven .
In 1993 a completely preserved corpse was found in a deep karst cave near Altamura near Bari. It was an archaic Homo sapiens , dated to an age of 130,000 years. The Altamura man had fallen into the crevice and was unable to break free. He had looked for an exit in the cave system and had moved sixty meters from the crash site in the dark; there he starved to death. It is 160–165 cm tall and its skeleton is very well preserved.
Other important sites besides the one in Latium are in the province of Verona Riparo Tagliente , where the remains of marmots were found, the type of processing indicates that fur was obtained, and Grotta di Fumane, where paintings were found that already belong to the Uluzzien, and San Bernardino. There are also the two Apulian caves, Grotta del Cavallo and Grotta di Santa Croce.
Overall, the technological development of the Neanderthals in Italy was considerably more dynamic than in neighboring southern France, especially in the Rhone Valley. The Pontinien, for example, located in the Pontina plain in southern Lazio, shows clear adaptations to a coastal area in which flint and pebbles were available as an unusual raw material ; these had become achievable through the lowering of the sea level, which in turn led to very small tools (microliths) which are unusual in Italy. On the other hand, the Italian Neanderthals were significantly less mobile and tended to roam their areas from fixed core areas. "These considerations are even more supported if you consider the often highly structured topography of the Italian peninsula, which is divided into more or less isolated regions by mountains and mountain ranges."
A long misleading find was made in 1939 in the Guattari Grotto at Promontorio del Circeo in Lazio . Hunters first stayed there about 75,000 years ago. The grotto was visited repeatedly for about 25,000 years until a landslide closed it. Upon discovery, the skull and jaw of a Neanderthal man were found, with the skull showing signs of processing. The discoverers interpreted this as "ritual cannibalism", an interpretation that could only be refuted in 1989. Apparently a hyena broke the skull in the cave.
However, there were indications from the symbolic sphere in the Grotta di Fumane. There, 44,000-year-old evidence of the removal of large feathers from bird species that were not consumed, such as the bearded vulture or red-footed falcon , was recently discovered . Signs of body painting were also discovered.
A total of 27 remains of Neanderthals were found in Italy (as of 2011) and about 350 sites that were dated to an age of between 125,000 and 35,000 years BP .
Upper Paleolithic
Even during the most extensive expansion phases of the glaciers, the coastal fringes as well as central and southern Italy were a refuge for numerous plants and animals , as the climate there remained comparatively mild. Studies on the Lago Grande di Monticchio in Basilicata showed that the climate in these cold periods was much drier, so that one assumes a dry steppe. This drought is likely to have had a negative impact on the megafauna , which in turn put strong pressure on people - be they Neanderthals or Cro-Magnons - to adapt, as their most important prey disappeared.
The earliest phase of the Upper Paleolithic , the Uluzzien , is often assigned to the Middle Paleolithic. The name goes back to Uluzzo in southern Apulia, where corresponding finds were made in the Grotta del Cavallo in the early 1960s . The uluzzia is only found in the south of the peninsula, but not in the middle, as was assumed until 2007 with reference to the Grotta della Fabbrica . The most important sites in Apulia are the Grotta del Cavallo and the Grotta Bernardini and the Grotta Riparo di Uluzzo ; in Campania these are the Cala and Castelcivita caves - the latter is between 32,500 and 33,500 years old. Two teeth from the Grotta del Cavallo were dated between 45,000 and 43,000 calendar years ago and are considered the oldest evidence of the existence of anatomically modern humans in Europe.
The tools include burins, scrapers, and blades, the latter, however, of poor quality, plus the smallest stone tools (or fragments), the so-called pezzi scagliati ("thrown pieces"). Axes are still missing at this time. Sickle-shaped microliths (called semi-lune , "half moons") are considered key fossils , although their number is rather small compared to other tools.
A hallmark of the Upper Paleolithic is a new stone processing technique. Flint was processed in a new blade concept with the creation of a "guide ridge". This means that a vertical dorsal ridge was created on the core , which enabled long, narrow cuts to be cut off. These are called blades. This concept differs fundamentally from the previously prevailing technique of blade manufacture based on the Levallois technique, which is considered to be characteristic of the Middle Paleolithic. Sometimes the new concept has already been used in transition industries such as Uluzzien.
Bone blades were also found in the Cavallo cave, in the Grotta di Castelcivita (the only cave of the Uluzzien excavated using modern methods), as well as in Uluzzo C , and awls . In contrast, such organic materials are found only extremely rarely from Proto- Aurignacia , the oldest archaeological culture of the Upper Palaeolithic. In the cave of Castelcivita, fishing was recorded.
Most of the sites are places where the groups lived for long periods of time; In the Caverna Generosa in the Lombard Pre-Alps at the foot of Monte Generoso , however, a temporary camp at an altitude of 1450 m was identified. Only a few haircuts were found, including some in the Levallois technique.
For the first time, references to body jewelry appear. Shells were pierced and probably used as jewelry, ocher and limonite as dyes.
It is unclear whether Neanderthals were still alive at this time, and the borders of the Uluzzia may also have to be moved to the north after 33,400-year-old artifacts that are attributed to the Uluzzia were discovered in the Grotta di Fumane.
The temporarily oldest traces of a Cro-Magnon man in the Grotta di Fumane were found 18 km northwest of Verona . They are thought to be around 35,000 to 37,000 years old. These hunters and gatherers may have been mainly in the mountain areas, where they hunted the megafauna . In Italy, Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons lived side by side for several millennia. So far, this can only be shown at a single point. Neanderthals lived in Riparo Mezzena at the same time as Cro-Magnon in the nearby Grotta di Fumane, where traces of Neanderthals were found in the deeper layers. The first group of finds could be dated to 34,540 ± 655 (uncal) BP. According to these investigations in 2011 on milk teeth from the Grotta del Cavallo, it is assumed that the uluzzia was not worn by Neanderthals.
In the north, the first evidence of Châtelperronia (Castelperroniano), which is otherwise only detectable in France and northern Spain , was recently found in Italy , in the Broion cave in Veneto, whose strata EC have already been assigned to Gravettia . In the case of Châtelperronia, the assignment to the two human species is not certain, although a study in 2009 came out with the result that it was assigned to the Neanderthals. Two corpses, initially identified as male, were found in the Grotta Paglicci. There is a 13-year-old boy as well as a young woman and a young man who are around 24,000 to 25,000 years old.
Paleolithic works of art, such as are so common in France and Spain, are extremely rare in Italy. Some of the oldest were found in the Grotta del Romito , a cave in the province of Cosenza in Calabria. There, for example, an aurochs was shown in the form of a stone carving . There were also grave sites in front of the cave. A corpse was found in the Caverna delle Arene Candide , which went down in literature as the “Little Prince”. He wore a coat made from around 400 squirrel skins, the oldest surviving item of clothing of this type.
In western Sicily, further petroglyphs were found in the Addaura Caves , which were interpreted here as ritual representations, but the connection remains uncertain. They have been dated to 16,060-15,007 cal. BP. The oldest human bones on the island were also found there. On one of the islands off the coast of Sicily to the west , other works of this type were found in various caves, including the Grotta del Genovese .
Mesolithic or Epipalaeolithic
The Mesolithic , often called the Epipalaeolithic in the Mediterranean region , describes the post-glacial period until the advent of agriculture. It begins around 9600 BC. And ends between the beginning of the 7th and the middle of the 6th millennium BC. Until the late 1960s, this phase was seen as the collapse of all previous art, the end of the great herbivore herds, sometimes even as the end of the population, which was then replaced by immigrants from the east. It turned out that ceramics had been made before agriculture and the domestication of animals had begun.
As in the previous phases defined by the raw material stone, tools and weapons also changed in the Mesolithic. Microliths dominated, but the tool shapes varied greatly from region to region. In Sicily the clearest localities are Uzzo and Perriere Sottano; In the former, geometric forms dominate, in the latter, non-geometric forms appear. There are also shell pearls, such as those made from Columbella rustica , where ocher was used for dyeing.
The food base changed in the course of the warming, which not only melted the glaciers, but also made the cold steppes disappear in a relatively short time. The large herds, especially aurochs and horses, increasingly disappeared. In the Uzzo cave, it was found that around a third of the animals hunted consisted of red deer, followed by wild boar, fox and cattle. There were also numerous bird species, but also fish, the proportion of which increased sharply during the Mesolithic (in Uzzo from 7.7 to 25.8%). Mainly groupers (86%) were caught, but also morays and gazes . Stranded marine mammals only appear occasionally, however, whale hunting did not yet exist. A similar increase in the proportion of fish in the diet was evident in the Grotta della Madonna in Calabria.
Fishing led to increasing sedentariness, which can be seen from catches from different seasons. Overall, the increasing sedentariness resulted in an often very small-scale specialization in the local food supply. Clay was not yet used to make ceramics, but fireplaces were operated on solid clay surfaces. Long- distance trade can also be seen here in the form of Obsidian from Lipari , which was found in Perriere Sotano near Catania in Sicily.
As of 1999, around half of the 40 corpses from the Mesolithic of Italy are of Sicilian origin. The dead were buried in pits, mostly individually, occasionally in pairs. Grave goods consisted of simple things like blades or shells, but also pierced animal teeth, pieces of antler and, in one case, the skull of a hyena. The Uzzo cave contained eight single and two double graves and thus the largest burial site in Italy from this period. Mesolithic sites can also be found in Sardinia, such as the Grotta su Coloru near Sassari , which can be dated to the first half of the 9th millennium.
By analogy to similar societies of the present one has tried to measure how large the space requirement may have been. The result was that this was around 5 km² for every human being, so that one reckons with perhaps 60,000 human inhabitants for Italy. The men were on average 1.66 to 1.74 m tall, while women were only 1.50–1.54 m tall. The condition of the teeth, which is typical of hunting societies, was considerably better than in the Neolithic, which grew grain.
Neolithic
The cardial or imprint culture , a term that encompasses a number of related cultures, got its name from engravings made with the cockle . They spread in the 7th millennium BC. On the eastern Adriatic coast and around the western Mediterranean, with the exception of the Balearic Islands . From the 6th millennium BC In the 2nd century BC, soil cultivation prevailed in the south of Italy - especially older forms of wheat , rye and beans were now grown - and domestic animals - especially dogs, goats, sheep, pigs and cattle - prevailed. The changed cultures brought forth complex ritual and religious forms, settlement in villages, ceramics, woven fabrics and craft specialties.
Since the spread of the associated cultures took place relatively quickly, researchers speculated that it was a matter of spreading by sea. This has now also been confirmed by genetic studies, which also show that the plants and animals that the new settlers brought with them also came from the eastern Mediterranean.
The earliest Neolithic finds are in Italy between 6100 and 5800 BC. A. Sidari on Corfu is considered a bridge find . A settlement initially took place along the coastal fringes of Apulia, Basilicata and Calabria, which expanded inland along the rivers. The hunter and gatherer cultures, which had already achieved better utilization of natural resources through seasonal migrations in the Mesolithic and whose members had increased significantly, were displaced from south to north.
Whether the process is connected to the Misox fluctuation (also 8.2 kiloyear event ), a cooling and above all dry phase of perhaps 200 years that started around 6200 BC. A change in traditional irrigation techniques in West Asia, or even caused an emigration movement, is unclear.
The situation is different in central Italy. On the Adriatic side there was also immigration from the Balkans , on the Tyrrhenian Sea there are signs of an acculturation process, in the course of which Mesolithic groups adopted the new lifestyle. Here appeared as early as 6800 BC. Painted ceramics. In the north there was contact for several centuries between the groups immigrating via Istria and Friuli and the Mesolithic groups, which however disappeared after a few centuries. Mesolithic and ceramic cultures still existed in the northwest around 5500 BC. Next to each other. The cultures of Fiorano and Vhò are considered to be mixed cultures of this type . In contrast, the influence of the linear ceramic band in northern Italy turned out to be considerably less than had long been assumed. More influence came from the south of France and from the Fiorano culture, which spread around 5000 BC. In Trentino , during the 5th millennium in central Emilia , Romagna and up to the Euganean Hills . The Vasi-a-bocca-quadrata culture of northern Italy followed the cardial or imprint culture. Gaban in the Adige Valley shows transitions between the Mesolithic and the Neolithic, but in most of the earliest farming areas no immediately previous Mesolithic traces can be found. This applies to large parts of the central and western Mediterranean area. In Liguria and Provence , the earliest impresso goods from around 5700 BC were found in 2017. Prove. The new rural settlements have an extremely high number of domestic animals, as can be seen for Torre Sabea on the coast of the Salento hills, where they make up 94% of the animal remains. Apparently, the animals were also used for milk production, as their age distribution shows.
Although the number of skeletal finds in Italy was still limited in the Neolithic , its investigation allows the statement that women were on average 1.56 m tall, men 1.66 m tall. This meant that the men in particular were smaller than in the Paleo- and Mesolithic, and even later they were never so small again. This could be related to periodic lack of adequate food. Deficiency symptoms can be detected, such as anemia , which causes the breakdown of the covering bone layer in the roof of the eye socket ( cribra orbitalia ) and which affects 31% of young people, or rickets , a softening of the bones due to a vitamin D deficiency, which in turn leads to Lack of sunlight decreases. Growth retardation or stagnation, for example in the enamel or long bones, is reflected in the enamel ( hypoplasia ), which can be demonstrated by means of horizontal grooves. The same applies to the Harris lines in the cross section of the long bone ends. The now grain-based diet also led to an increase in tooth decay and tooth loss. Overall life expectancy was rather low, with adults often dying before the age of 30; among the dead, the number of children roughly corresponded to that of adults. The condition of the leg bones suggests that men moved around a lot more than women. Apparently the women's teeth were often removed, but since there are no other traces of violence in the facial area, this was probably more for cosmetic, ritual or social reasons. Signs of one or more trepanations could be found. a. on a corpse in the Grotta Patrizi.
A characteristic of the Neolithic in Italy is not only the cultivation of the land, but also the village, as shown by the excavations of Ripoli in Marche or Stentinello in Sicily, the latter giving its name to the Stentinello culture in Sicily and Malta. Small villages of about 25 residents consisted of about half of children. Since the number of men and women was also very small, too few partners were likely to have been available, but above all, neither defense nor robbery, joint hunts or harvests were possible. All of this was only possible in cooperation with other villages. Villages with 100 inhabitants, such as Catignano or Favella, could handle these tasks alone or with smaller village networks. In addition, they were supported by more elderly people whose skills and memories were useful to them. People rarely more than 50 years old benefited from experiences with rare events, and for that reason alone they were highly regarded. Only small groups were available for special tasks, such as the production of ceramics, horticulture or hunting, especially since this work was gender-specific.
Clay figurines representing people are, as is also assumed in the rest of Europe, mostly female and almost always very small. They were apparently rarely used in Italy, rarely revised, and apparently thrown away without ritual, so that they may have been used for healing rituals or initiation rites. In contrast, they appear much more frequently in the Balkans, suggesting a different use. At the end of the Neolithic, they completely disappeared; other forms of expression such as rock paintings dominated at the end of this era, such as in the Valcamonica , in the Grotta dei Cervi near Porto Badisco (municipality of Otranto ) or Levanzo on the edge of the Alps, in Apulia and on Sicily. Statues of men and women were found in the Lunigiana and in the western Alps as well as in the western Po Plain, and they bore a number of attributes in a highly stylized manner - whether they represented ancestors or cosmological figures remains unclear. Stone figurines, on the other hand, were often added to the dead, worked much better, and they were not carelessly thrown away, but ritually buried. The connection of female figurines with feminine and soil fertility, which is often found in older research, has now met with reservations. Some figurines showed traces of ocher , as was also found on dead bodies. A few had bird-like masks, others, as in Cala Scizzo , the Grotta Pacelli or Baselice, an elaborate headdress. It is also unclear whether there is a connection between this emphasis on the head - in contrast to the mostly female nudity on gender-neutral figurines - and the trepanations .
In total, more than 100 graves with more than 400 corpses have been excavated from this period. They can be found in settlements and caves, without any additions, which however slowly increased in the 5th millennium. The graves also became more complex, for example in the Grotta Patrizi . In some places skulls or other bones were reburied, rearranged, or removed. Men were more often buried lying on their right side, women more often on their left. The people were always buried individually, except for The Lovers of Valdaro (or "Mantua", it. Amanti di Valdaro , or. Mantova ), who were buried in a deep embrace 6000 years ago and discovered in 2007.
The largest group and apparently with the least ritual attention after death were children. In one case (Porto Badisco cave), however, the imprint of a child's hand appears, so it was involved in a ritual. Said removal of the teeth was possibly related to growing up. People in their 20s or 30s were often parents of multiple parents and experienced enough for difficult tasks, but wars, house building or bad harvests were perhaps beyond their experience horizon. The more than 40-year-old woman from Cattignano I may have had such memories, who may have known her grandparents and thus benefited from otherwise barely tangible knowledge.
In contrast to the Bronze and Iron Ages, weapons were extremely rare grave goods. In the Grotta Patrizi (near Sasso di Furbara, Cerveteri ) an arch was probably added to the deceased, but otherwise there is no evidence of the later so important difference between the sexes. It is not known whether men or women or both sexes wore the pieces of jewelry preserved. They were made of animal teeth, small beads, and even small hatchets were carried.
Likewise, in Neolithic Italy there are no signs of a hierarchization of society, such as rich burial places, monumental architecture, central places with a hierarchical relationship to neighboring places, even if the latter phenomenon may have started to develop. Concepts of "chiefs" and "tribes" have also proven unsuitable.
Long-distance trade, probably over several stages and in connection with ritual exchanges, existed with obsidian and axes. In the late Neolithic there was evidence of extensive trade in obsidian from Sardinia to southern France, where almost all of this volcanic rock came from the island. Traces of settlement from around 5300 to 5000 BC were found on the Rio Saboccu in the vicinity of the volcanic Monte Arci . Otherwise obsidian, which is rare in Europe, only occurs on Palmarola , Lipari and Pantelleria . Regular seafaring was a prerequisite for this trade. Seaworthy ships or boats from this era have not yet been found. The oldest surviving dugout canoe in the Mediterranean, at 7000 years old, was found in 1993 on Lake Bracciano in Lazio (La Marmotta 1). However, the at least 13,000 year old extraction of obsidian on the Greek island of Milos shows that sea vessels were in use much earlier.
Eneolithic or Copper Age
With the spread of copper processing across the Balkans from the middle of the 5th millennium, a society emerged whose hierarchy was based on the accumulation of prestige and wealth. Knowledge of the metal and its processing reached around 4000 BC. BC southern Italy. At that time, the predominant Neolithic cultures were the Diana culture in southern Italy and Sicily, as well as the Lagozza culture in much of central and northern Italy. They evolved into Metal Age cultures. Copper was extracted from the middle of the 4th millennium near Cosenza in Calabria, but also in Liguria, where from around 4200 BC. Founded the oldest copper mining site in Italy and later also in other places, such as in Trentino (Acqua Fredda, 13th-11th century BC).
The Copper Age Gaudo culture (around 3150–2300 BC) had its focus in Campania . Finds in central Lazio, Apulia and Basilicata are assigned to it. The most important sites are Pontecagnano , Eboli , Buccino , Piano di Sorrento and Mirabella Eclano. Their eponymous settlement was found in the Contrada Spina-Gaudo near Paestum , not far from the mouth of the Sele . In time it overlapped with the later forms of the cultures of Diana-Bellavista and Ripoli, which are still attributed to the Neolithic.
The discovery of the tombs of Spina-Gaudo was thanks to the construction of the airport, which the Allies began in the Bay of Salerno at the end of 1943. Archaeologist John GS Brinson was with the troops. The necropolis was excavated from 1946 to the mid-1960s and 34 graves were found in an area of around 2000 m². This makes it the largest necropolis of Gaudo culture to date. Here, too, richer graves were interpreted as those of "tribal leaders" ( capotribù ), such as the grave of Mirabella Eclano. The man was apparently buried with his dog, in addition there were four drinking vessels, two stone and three copper daggers, 42 arrowheads, 36 scrapers, a bronze ax - the latter came from the Tyrrhenian Sea and is assigned to the culture of Rinaldone. There were indications of victims outside the graves.
What is certain is that the people worked the land, but there are also references to shepherds. In addition, there were references to clan structures. To this day, their culture is known almost exclusively from necropolises, which were richly furnished, often with copper objects such as daggers or quivers. Family graves buried in soft stone were characteristic of the changed understanding of family continuity and the importance of ancestors. Drinking vessels were given, possibly to greet the ancestors, and occasionally pieces of meat from cattle or pigs. The bones of the deceased had to make space for the next deceased. Individual graves were found in Colle Sannita, Tufara di Montesarchio, Faicchio, Camposauro, near Sessa Aurunca, Caiazzo, near Gesualdo, Avella, Montecorvino-stazione, on Ischia and in Naples.
The ceramic is named Piano Conte after a place where it was found on Lipari , where it first appeared.
The oldest culture of the Sicilian Copper Age is the Conca-d'Oro culture from the 3rd millennium BC. This culture, which can be proven in the northwest of the island, produced ceramics with simple lines and rows of dots. Also Glockenbecher came to Western Sicily.
In the fully developed Eneolithic, in addition to the Gaudo culture, the Andria culture in Apulia and Basilicata, Rinaldone in Latium and Tuscany, Vecchiano in northwestern Tuscany, Ortucchio in the upper central Apennines and the Conelle culture in central Adriatic Italy. In the north there are a number of cultural groups, including the Spilamberto group in Emilia , the Remedello group in the eastern Po Valley and the Civate group in the Alps. In Sardinia, the end Neolithic cultures of Su Caroppu and Filiestru were followed by the Bono Ighinu culture , to which the Ozieri culture is now also included (4700 to 4000, or 4200 to 3000? BC). In addition to unfortified villages, the so-called perda fitta , unworked menhirs, which are usually less than head-high, the largest of which towers 5 m.
In the north, the man from Tisenjoch, known as " Ötzi ", who was discovered in 1991, can be attributed to the Copper Age, especially since he carried an ax made of particularly pure copper. He belonged to a pastoral culture that grazed its herds of cattle and sheep in the higher elevations of the southern Alps in the warm season.
In the far north-west there were remains of a megalithic culture, such as the complex of Saint Martin de Corléans near Aosta . It goes back to between 3000 and 2750 BC. BC and was until about 1900 BC. In use. In addition to grave sites of various kinds, it has steles up to 4.5 m high.
In addition to the use of metal, the much more noticeable and massively tangible change is the use of ceramics, which began around 4500 BC. Occurs regularly stamped or grooved. Painted ceramics, on the other hand, are largely disappearing. In addition, there is livestock farming with changing pastures ( transhumance ), the extent of which, however, was less than had long been assumed due to the lack of an extensive agricultural environment that is economically interrelated with it. It seems that people were sick less often, their teeth were healthier due to a more balanced diet, and people were a little taller than in the previous phases. Weaving techniques also developed and spread, which made clothing more adaptable. In Ledro there was first evidence that draft animals were used. But large parts of northern and central Italy remained predominantly forested. There the hunt apparently increased. The villages in the south are extremely seldom tangible, while the Ortelle and Ortucchio cultures know large villages. Further north, the small villages were probably only inhabited seasonally, the importance of the herds of cattle, more sheep and goats, increased.
For the first time statues were created that were not yet monumental, but with a size of 31 and 35 cm, as in the case of the statues from Apulia (Arnesano) and the Veronese (Sant'Anna d'Alfaedo), were no longer easy to hold in the hand in the previous times when the statues were much smaller. Now stelae with cosmological attributes emerged, finally anthropomorphic stelae like in the Lunigiana . Apparently they were set up between the settlements, occasionally in groups, as in Osimo . They were possibly used as signposts, border marks or markings as a reminder, and there was often speculation about mother or ancestral cults.
Grave goods were processed much more finely and consisted mostly of copper, flint or bone, whereby the stone processing achieved a high level of craftsmanship, which was shown in projectile points and axes. In contrast to the Neolithic, men were now consistently given weapons, a tradition that lasted until the end of the Iron Age. It also marks the first recognizable, fundamental distinction between male and female roles in religious thought, as was the case in large parts of Europe in the 3rd millennium BC. BC is much more clearly recognizable. Between Central Russia and the Western Alps, male graves were created as “right stools”, that is, lying on the right side with their legs drawn up, while female graves were created as “left stools”. At the same time, the head was always in the east. In contrast, in the huge space between Morocco and Greater Poland, the heads were oriented north-south, there the men were “left stools” and the women “right”. While the former graves were equipped with axes and vessels made of corded ceramic , the latter contained copper daggers and bell beakers . In Italy, which not only differed from the rest of Europe in this respect, neither monumentalization nor recognizable central locations to which surrounding locations were assigned. A formal stratification or distribution of power is not discernible, neither within the groups nor between the settlements.
The trade was apparently intensified and related to prestigious goods such as copper, flint or obsidian, but they were not accumulated as possessions but passed on to gain reputation. Possibly, however, they also served the ceremonial closings of the now more extensive social systems and their security. This spaciousness of the relationships could also be the reason for the noticeably increasing similarity of the material culture. Lagozza ceramics are very uniform throughout central and northern Italy. In addition, in the middle of the 4th millennium, stone objects of prestige were largely replaced by metal.
In addition to these changes, there are numerous elements of great continuity, such as the use of ocher in the tombs. So there can be no question of a break, but of constant continuity in the slow change.
Since the settlement before 5000 BC Southern Italy, Sicily and Malta belonged to an overarching culture, the Stentinello culture . Now the southernmost branch of the southern Italian cultures began to go their own way. While Italy is referred to as the Copper Age, Malta refers to the period between 3600 and 2400 BC at the latest. BC as Neolithic. There, multi-roomed, monumental temples were built that did not function as burial sites.
Bronze age
The Bronze Age begins around 2300 BC. One, according to other authors around 2200. Numerous cultures can be identified in Italy, whose assignment to the peoples that appear in the earliest written sources is not always certain. In the middle of the Bronze Age there were also strong movements of peoples, which archaeologically are reflected in village fortifications.
Indo-Europeans
When and under which culture (s) the Indo-Germanization of Italy took place has so far been insufficiently researched. A glottochronological work published in 2012 dates the collapse of the Celto-Italian community to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. This would agree with the assumption of David W. Anthony , who initially dates this decay as "late bathing", but only assumes the further spread to the north of the Apennine peninsula much later as part of the Urnfield and Villanova culture.
Periodization
Usually four phases are distinguished: the Early Bronze Age (approx. 2300–1700 BC), the Middle (1700–1350), the Younger (1350–1150) and the Late Bronze Age or End Bronze Age (1150–950). Concerning. Sicily and the Aeolian Islands are extended by some authors from the early Bronze Age to the end of the Castelluccio or Capo Graziano culture around the middle of the 15th century. The early period in the north is characterized by the Polada culture , whose villages are mainly found on the banks of lakes and rivers. The Po area, which was densely populated before and after this phase, appears to have only been sparsely populated during this period. In villages such as Ledro , Rivoli and on Monte Covolo , the bronze was worked, and depot finds were made that are interpreted as stores by traders, such as at Savignano or Pieve Albignola. Central Italy is characterized in the east by the Ripatransone culture , which was followed by the Montemerano-Scoglietto-Palidoro culture . Pasture farming continued to grow here, fortified sites can be identified, and finds such as the Tomba della Vedova (widow's grave) show greater social differentiation. Apparently the deceased's wife was sacrificed near Ponte San Pietro, and a dog guarded the entrance to the grave. The Early Bronze Age Laterza - the Palma-Campania culture - followed in southern Italy . Places like Toppo Daguzzo (near Melfi ) in northern Basilicata could have been the first central places . Finds such as those in La Muculufa in Sicily (near Butera ) document olive and wine growing. Finally, in Sicily, the Castelluccio culture spread to the central and southeastern part of the island. While some places like Branco Grande were walled around, in the west places like Manfria were apparently unpaved. There was also uncertainty in the Aeolian Islands, where unpaved areas were being given up in favor of areas that were easier to defend.
In the middle Po Valley, settlements such as Lagazzi del Vhò were abandoned in the Middle Bronze Age . Instead, Castellaro del Vhò arose immediately to the north. Fortified villages known as castellieri emerged in the east . In Emilia there was a significant increase in the number of villages, reaching up to one village per 25 km², as shown by excavations around Santa Rosa di Poviglio ( Terramare culture ). Despite the apparently increasing complexity of the locations, there is still no recognizable hierarchy. In the Apennine region, a kind of division of labor between transhumance and grain cultivation emerged in the summer months. In addition to sheep and goats, pigs and cattle now also played a larger role. It is significant that only in this part of Italy no goods from the Aegean were found, so that it is assumed that trade is not very well developed. However, three monumental graves at Toppo Daguzzo show a pronounced hierarchy, as in the entire south of the peninsula. While semicircular and circular huts were supported by a central post in eastern Sicily, Thapsos was evidently a settlement that was evidently influenced by eastern Mediterranean elements, which in its second phase (from the 14th century BC) had not only rectangular buildings but already has proto-urban structures. They have formal similarities with cities in Boeotia . It was probably already a seafaring and trading town. Another hub of maritime trade was Cannatello in southern Sicily, where u. a. Artifacts of Mycenaean , Cypriot , Maltese and Sardinian origins came to light. Large villages with up to 50 houses emerged on the Aeolian Islands, such as Punta Milazzese on Panarea . At the end of this phase (around the middle of the 13th century), the Acropolis of Lipari shows strong signs of destruction.
Between about 1350 and 1150 BC Northern Italy was characterized by continuity. The graves of Canegrate continued the facilities of the Middle Bronze Age Scamozzina-Monza group. They showed strong influences from beyond the Alps. Places such as Boffolora already covered an area of 5 hectares. Except in central northern Italy, settlements were predominant on raised, dry land. Santa Rosa di Poviglio in the Po area grew from one to seven hectares, Fondo Paviani was 16 hectares, Case del Lago even 22.5. However, it is not certain whether these were refugee villages. Around 1200 BC The stilt settlement area disappeared and the population fell sharply. So far the only indicator of a connection with the collapse of the Mycenaean palace culture is the use of dimensions adopted there. In the Apennine area the villages were also larger and fortified, in Latium and Tuscany a recognizable hierarchical relationship arose between the villages. In the Tolfabergen this is probably due to a copper deposit. Associations, perhaps families, were often buried in the same place in graves.
In Puglia, in contrast to the north, some settlements close to the water were not abandoned, but strongly fortified, such as ports (Porto Perone (near Leporano ), Coppa Nevigata , Scoglio del Tonno ), or Middle Bronze Age fortifications renewed or reinforced ( Roca Vecchia ). Like Vivara in the Gulf of Naples , they show traces of close contacts in the Aegean region. The oldest late Helladic pottery was found in the hilltop settlement of Broglio di Trebisacce, around two kilometers inland from the modern town of Trebisacce , near Sybaris . It came from the Middle Bronze Age. In Sicily, the coastal places in the east were around the middle of the 13th century BC. Often abandoned in BC and inland new ones emerged such as Panatalica , whose necropolis consisted of over 5000 rock chamber tombs. The higher Monte Dessueri was surrounded by a stone wall. The destruction of the Milazzese settlements on the Aeolian Islands was followed by the Ausonian culture , which is divided into two phases: Ausonio I and II. For the period around 1200 BC. Domesticated donkeys are proven for the first time by finds in Termitito (municipality of Montalbano Jonico ) and in the Apulian Coppa Nevigata .
The last phase of the Bronze Age is dominated by the Proto-Villanova culture, which is characterized by urn fields of Central and Northern Europe. The middle Po area seems to have been abandoned, but places like Grandi Valli Veronesi held out for some time, as did Fondo Paviani (16 ha), Fabbrica dei Soci (6 ha) or Castello del Tartaro (11 ha). Here, too, traces of late Mycenaean ceramics can be found . The 20 hectare Frattesina on a branch of the Po existed from the 12th to the 9th centuries. Glass and glazed ceramics, objects made of bone and antlers, bronze, ivory and iron were found; Apparently the place was a trading hub, because ostrich eggs, amber etc. were also found. Similar to Montagnana on the Adige , there were late Mycenaean and Mycenaean sherds, mostly probably imitations of southern Italian origin. This place was probably the predecessor of the Iron Age Estonian. Tuscany and the southern edge of the Alps supplied the neighboring areas with copper. The villages in the Po Valley dwindled, but there were densities of settlements on Lake Como and Lake Maggiore .
In the south of Italy there were numerous depots with axes. The larger number of weapons additions indicates the increasing power of a warrior elite. One of the earliest ironworking sites at the end of the Bronze Age is the Calabrian Broglio di Trebisacce. The rituals that used to be held in caves and the erection of symbols increasingly took place in the open countryside, such as in Castelluccio dei Sauri. Tombs visible from afar, like in Pantalica, increasingly emphasized the individuality of death. Cypriot ceramics appear for the first time in Sicily , and a cobbled street was also found for the first time. Lipari probably became an intermediate trade post to Africa.
Cultures
Southern Italy
The only megaliths of mainland Italy are in Puglia, apart from a small group of simple stone boxes in the area of Rome and Naples (Pian Sultano), a tumulus in Liguria and the foothills of the Swiss complex of Saint Martin de Corléans in the Aosta Valley . The approximately 80 known megalithic systems of the Bari- Taranto and Otranto types ( megaliths in Apulia ) extend into the early Bronze Age. There are also around 100 menhirs and hypogea such as those of Trinitapoli .
In 1995, near Nola , 25 km east of Naples, there was a village that existed between 1880 and 1680 BC. Was destroyed by a huge ash shower from Vesuvius . In 2001 two wells, a threshing floor and three oval huts were found. The walls of the latter were preserved up to 1.5 m high, so that the construction method could be partially reconstructed. The largest house measured 17 × 9 m and had walls made of a wooden framework that was filled with bundles of reeds or rush mats. The villagers kept goats in gates, fences demarcated properties for the first time. Almonds, mushrooms, figs and spat out olive pits as well as barley flour were found, as well as a 12 cm tall clay female figure.
In 1996 the remains of oak trunks were found in the Sarno valley , about ten kilometers upstream from Poggiomarino . They formed the foundation for the first known pile dwellings in southern Italy, as they were already known from the north, but also from Lake Mezzano in Latium. Drainage canals, spanned by bridges, ran between the at least eight islands that had been excavated by 2003. The excavation manager Claude Albore Livadie estimated the number of inhabitants at 2000, in almost every hut bronze was worked. From the 17th to the 7th century BC The "bronze metropolis" existed in BC, then it fell victim to a fire. Apparently the city got by without defenses.
At the time of the Greek colonization, according to ancient sources, the Messapians lived in Apulia, the Oskers in inland southern Italy and the Greeks along the coasts. The Messapians possibly came from Illyria and reached Apulia around 1000 BC. Besides the Messapians, the Apulian groups also include the Daunians and Peuketeers, who are related to them . Messapier, Daunier and Peuketeer were regarded in ancient sources as the three groups of the Japygians .
Castelluccio, Capo Graziano, Thapsos culture (Sicily, Aeolian Islands)
The culture of Castelluccio (2200–1450 BC) in Sicily, which is related to the Middle Helladic culture of mainland Greece, and of Capo Graziano on the Aeolian Islands , somewhat later the Thapsos culture (approx. 1450–1270 BC) .) in Sicily and the approximately simultaneous, closely related, Milazzese culture on the Aeolian Islands, which also included Ustica and radiated to Calabria, developed from the late 3rd millennium BC. They are mainly known in Sicily from grave finds, on the Aeolian Islands mainly from settlement finds, and reveal independent island cultures that differ significantly from those of the Italian mainland. The first phase of the Capo Graziano culture (approx. 2200–1800 BC) is determined by villages that were largely unprotected. From the beginning of the second phase (approx. 1800–1430 BC), the settlements, which mostly consist of round and oval huts, are of course very well protected places, such as B. the eponymous settlement Capo Graziano on Filicudi or the settlement on the so-called Acropolis of Lipari. A necropolis with around 30 cremations was discovered on Lipari. The openings of the urns were covered by stone slabs, and sometimes one or two bowls or cups were found as grave goods. The funeral rites reveal clear parallels to those of the Tarxien necropolis on Malta.
Castelluccio shows an independent type of grave, namely burial in natural caves or oval pits, which are surrounded by dry masonry. In Baravitalla there was a necropolis with around 80 grave cells; a village from the late 3rd millennium was found in 1982 near La Muculufa in central Sicily.
The oldest inhabitants of Sicily known by name are the Sicans , who lived in fortified villages. Their settlement center is said to have been Sant'Angelo Muxaro near Agrigento . From the late 2nd millennium BC onwards They were pushed further and further west by the Sikelians who immigrated to the east of the island . One of the archaeological sites spanning these two groups is Morgantina ; In the early Bronze Age it belonged to the Castellucio culture, later it was part of the Thapsos culture, during the Late Bronze Age, on the other hand, elements of the Ausonian culture can be clearly identified, which began around 1270 BC. In the Aeolian Islands, but in the course of time it also expanded to the north-east of Sicily. At the same time, the Elymers settled in the northwest ; their main settlements were Eryx , Segesta and Entella . Whether the Sicans came from North Africa, the Sicelians from mainland Italy and the Elymers from Asia Minor has long been debated.
Bonnanaro and Nuragic culture (Sardinia)
.jpg)
The transition from copper to early Bronze Age marked on Sardinia the Bonnanaro culture from 2200 v. Their relatives were the last to use rock chambers in Italy , as in the necropolis of Montessu , in Santu Pedru or Sos Furrighesos . On Monte d'Accoddi they are represented with the tripod typical of this culture . In this period the first elongated burial chambers were found as harbingers of the Nuragic giant tombs of the Tombe dei Giganti ; in addition, protonuraghen emerged as the predecessor of the tholosuraghen .
The Bonnanaro- followed the nuragic culture , which up to the 4th century BC. In some places even as far as Roman times. It began as a Bronze Age culture, but also developed techniques for iron extraction and processing. The characteristic nuraghi may have emerged from dolmens and giant tombs of the Neolithic predecessor cultures. On the neighboring Corsica there are around 800 menhirs, most of them around Sartène , but also dolmens like that of Fontanaccia and 42 stone boxes.
The islanders were traders and seafarers and their long-distance trading contacts extended - probably over several intermediate stages - as far as the North Sea and Egypt. Whether to combine them with the Scherden , which provided auxiliary troops in Egypt under Ramses II and the land together with other sea peoples in the early 12th century BC. Attacked is controversial. From the 9th century BC Phoenicians settled on the island from the 7th century onwards, also in the interior. The oldest traces of a permanent Phoenician settlement come from the town of Sulki on an island off the southwest coast of Sardinia.
Apennine culture
The Apennine culture was characterized by transhumance . Therefore, in addition to small villages in easily defendable places, there were also summer camps, which were often near or in caves or on rock overhangs, which offered adequate protection from the weather. Their pottery was also discovered on the Capitol in Rome, as well as on the larger islands off the Italian coast. It usually has incised decorations, where spiral and meander bands dominate. The incisions were often filled with white paint or white paste (see Impasto ceramics ). Whole body burial was common.
According to a controversial assumption, the bearers of this culture represented one of the ethnic groups from which the Etruscans later emerged. In doing so, the Apennine people would have mixed with those who were believed to be Indo-European from the north who were carriers of the Villanova culture . According to this thesis, there were also immigrants from the East Aegean, who are said to have given the decisive impetus to Etruscan culture with their further developed culture. In Luni sul Mignone (near Blera ), which Swedish archaeologists excavated in the 1960s, Mycenaean ceramics from the 14th-12th centuries were found. Century BC In addition, the remains of three long rectangular houses were found there, one of which was around 4 by 42 m. They were buried about 1.2 to 1.8 m into the earth. It is unclear whether one can speak of an Etruscan population here, the large quantities of Mycenaean goods could also be an expression of intensified trade in alum , which was abundant in the neighboring Tolfabergen and which was used both for tanning and for reduction processes in metal extraction. After 1200 BC BC traces of the Apennine culture can only be found in higher areas.
Ligurians
In 1827 the first stele was discovered near Novà in the province of La Spezia , in 1905 the oldest monuments of this kind were found near Pontevecchio in the municipality of Fivizzano in northwestern Tuscany. There were nine stelae, which were in a row and on the 1750 m high Monte Sagro. The monuments were the result of a culture that had been characterized by extensive pasture management and very high mobility since the pre-Christian era. In addition, there seems to be a genetic continuity at least from the Neolithic to the Iron Age, which would confirm that the Ligurians of the latter epoch actually belonged to the autochthonous peoples.
Grinding tools can be detected since the beginning of the 5th millennium. Only towards the end of the Neolithic did progressive deforestation due to slash and burn , so that the proportion of grain growing areas increased. Nevertheless, the proportion of grain in the diet remained comparatively low, so that it is assumed that pasture farming is predominant. The shepherds used not so much the pastures to get their cattle as they did by cutting leaves from the treetops.
The oldest copper mine in Western Europe was found in Liguria. Since about 3600 BC In BC copper was mined on Monte Loreto, a sought-after commodity. The tunnels in the mountain, which lies in the hinterland of Sestri Levante in eastern Liguria, were attacked again in 1857 and only finally abandoned towards the end of the 1860s. The last time archaeologists from the University of Nottingham dug here from 1996 to 2001. Their dates showed that the mine was located in the mine until around 2800 BC. Was worked. Only 6 km away is a second, similarly old copper mine, that of Libiola. However, only the oak handle of a pickaxe has survived from this site, dating from 3500 to 3100 BC. BC could be dated.
On Monte Bego west of Tenda , which has belonged to France since 1947, over 40,000 petroglyphs were found , the oldest of which dates from between 2800 and 1300 BC. Were dated. The British researcher Clarence Bicknell (1842–1918), who was the first to study them, called the area Valle delle Meraviglie ("Valley of the Miracles"). The stone carvings were already described in the 17th century, but it was not until 2007 that the Monaco Museum was able to determine the function of some of the rock carvings located at an altitude of 2,000 to 2,600 m. Accordingly, it is a solar calendar.
In 1984 two tumuli were found north of Sanremo , one of which could be dated to the late Bronze Age. With this dolmen di Borgio Verezzi connections to the megalithic in southern France and Tuscany could be established. It is 2.1 m wide, 1.9 m deep and 1.1 m high.
Terramare, Proto-Golasecca, ancient Venetian culture (Po plain)
The Terramare culture in the Po Valley originated in the 17th to 13th centuries BC. The settlements were fortified, their residents lived in pile dwellings , which have been researched since the middle of the 19th century and which therefore date back to the Middle Neolithic. These houses were mostly on solid land, were rectangular and the settlements had right-angled road plans. Possibly they were buildings in Emilia for middlemen with their own warehouses for goods of long-distance trade such as Baltic amber or tin from the Ore Mountains , which came through the Val Camonica and over the Po into the Adriatic and as far as Greece and the Middle East. The carriers of this culture are now the old European Ligurians , who are regarded as the oldest people in Italy, and less Indo-European immigrants, as has long been assumed. The most important site is the village in the Fiavé moor , excavated from 1969 to 1976 , which was sporadically inhabited as early as the Mesolithic. The stilt houses there were adapted to both the lake and the solid ground. Lavagnone near Desenzano on Lake Garda is of similar importance , which lasted until around 2050 BC. (Lavagnone 1), a time that is more associated with immigration from the central Danube region (Polada culture). Lavagnone 2 was inhabited for 65 years, Lavagnone 3 was inhabited around 1984 BC. Started. Also in the Lake Garda area, where most of the settlements were, is La Quercia di Lazise. So far only a few general statements can be made about the social structure of these groups.
The Porot and Golasecca cultures also originated in the Po Valley in the late Bronze Age (1200 to 800 and up to the 4th century BC). Its name goes back to a village in the Ticino area. It stretched between the Po, Sesia and Serio , and existed from the 9th to the 4th century BC. It was preceded by the Proto-Golasecca culture, which began in the 12th century. Even after the Celtic invasions around 390 to 380 BC. The culture persisted. Their relatives traded with the Etruscans and later also with the Greeks and northwards to the Hallstatt culture and the Baltic states .
Remains of pile dwellings at Oppeano can be traced back to around 1400 to 1300 BC. To date. Urns and metal objects suggested the existence of necropolises , which were found in the Mortara area , near the Ca 'del Ferro and the Ca' del Franchino. Oppeano is one of the centers of ancient Venetian culture , along with Este and Padua . The finds are widely scattered and can be found in Rome , Este, Verona , Legnago or Florence , where Oppeano's bronze helmet is located. At the end of the Bronze Age, an urbanization process began, with Oppeano having an area of 80 hectares. The Venetians were the bearers of the Este culture (from the 10th century). The Venetians mentioned in the ancient sources can only be reliably identified as northeastern neighbors of the Etruscans from the 6th century. More than 370 inscriptions of them were known in 2006, the oldest around 550 BC. BC and can be found on the Kantharos vessel from Lozzo.
Castellieri culture (Istria, Veneto)
The Castellieri culture originated in Istria and expanded its influence towards Dalmatia , but also into Friuli and Venezia Giulia . It existed from the 15th to the 3rd century BC. The forts or fortified villages that gave the culture its name were characteristic. They were surrounded by one or more ramparts, although they were round in Istria and Venezia Giulia, but rectangular in Friuli. Similarities with Mycenaean buildings gave rise to speculations about corresponding waves of migration from Greece.
About a hundred of these villages are known. These include the Limski Canal in central western Istria, Monkodonja near Rovinj , Jelarji near Muggia , Monte Giove near Prosecco ( Trieste ) and San Polo not far from Monfalcone . The largest was probably Nesactium near Pula .
Canegrate culture (Lombardy, Piedmont, Ticino)
The Canegrate culture was named after the village of the same name near Milan , in which around 50 graves with ceramic and metal objects were found. This culture originated in the 13th century BC and lasted until the Iron Age. Its center was in western Lombardy, in eastern Piedmont and extended northward into Ticino .
The Canegrate culture, whose members probably immigrated from the Alpine zone, is very similar in terms of terracotta production to finds in Provence , Savoy , Isère, Wallis , on the Upper Rhine and in eastern France.
Laugen-Melaun culture (South Tyrol, Trentino)
The Laugen-Melaun culture belongs to the Middle and Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. It originated in the course of the 14th century BC. And is named after two sites near Brixen ; their traces were found in Trentino , in South and East Tyrol and in parts of Graubünden . Immigrants may have brought a different pottery and cremation in urns. This culture could also be the starting point of the urnfield culture . The Gamberoni site near Eppan , Nußdorf-Debant in East Tyrol, Flums-Gräpplang in the Alpine Rhine Valley and the Pfatten cemetery near Bozen were the few larger excavations in the region. From 1997 to 2003, a Bronze Urnfield settlement and sacrificial site was systematically excavated for the first time on Ganglegg near Schluderns in Vinschgau . The square apparently had functions as a central location, which suggests a spacious ceremonial association. The temporal beginning of the cultural group through imports could be shown for the first time. The development of a senior class attached to mining is still largely unexplored; The same applies to transalpine trade. More recent investigations on the Schlern , where a place that has long been interpreted as a fire sacrifice site at an altitude of over 2500 m has been located since the 17th century BC Was used, show cultural imports.
Iron age
The Iron Age, and occasionally the Late Bronze Age, is considered to be the formatting phase of the tribes that appear in the sources. At the same time groups from Greece colonized the southern coastal fringes. The population increased in the south to around 10 inhabitants per km².
Trade became more extensive and intensive, the differences in wealth more evident, and the development of proto-urban structures accelerated. In addition, the methods of archeology can increasingly be supplemented by historical sources. By the 8th century at the latest, there were increased imports from the east and imitations. Princely aristocratic ranks emerged, with those in Tuscany in particular expanding and an internal hierarchy of the centers becoming recognizable. There, as well as in Lazio and Campania, cities emerged that extended their influence far beyond the immediate vicinity. The Greek city-states expanded in the south and on the islands. In the north, the Celts, in the south, the Osker and Umbrian peoples, caused large-scale movements.
In Italy the border between preistoria and protostoria is sometimes drawn at the transition from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age, but at the latest at the beginning of the Iron Age; in Germany the prehistory and prehistory extend to the Roman occupation, the early history even to the Carolingian period.
Immigration and internal differentiation, ethnic classification
In the sources, Ligurians (they lived in what is now Liguria , southern Piedmont and the coast of southern France), Sikeler and Sikaner appear as autochthonous peoples, while all others have immigrated.
In research, Giovanni Patroni derived several waves of invasion, mainly from Indo-European peoples, on the basis of linguistic studies in 1937 ( Storia politica d'Italia. La preistoria ). Massimo Pallottino ( L'origine degli Etruschi ) contradicted this in 1947 , who assumed that internal differentiation would gradually take place. In popular scientific representations, a simplifying connection between, sometimes even an inseparable unity of ethnicity, language and culture is established to this day. Although the language is often seen as a sign of ethnic affiliation, conditional imprisonment, exogamy, trade contacts etc. are often multilingual, as in the case of a Celt who in the 6th century Veneto described himself as a speaker of five languages (pompeteguaios). Nevertheless, the concept of peoples' movements continues to be pursued.
To date, many of the peoples' movements in Italy have not been clarified. The Camunni in Valcamonica were of unknown origin. Even the Roman authors no longer knew for sure how to classify the tribes. If one follows Pliny d. Ä., Were the Camunni Euganeer ( Naturalis historia , III 133-134), according to Strabo, however, they were Raetians ( Geography IV 6.8). It is unclear whether they in turn ousted hunters and gatherers in this valley in Lombardy. Above all, they left numerous painted rocks.
The Romans considered the Aborigines , the earliest inhabitants of Lazio, together with the Trojans as common ancestors. It must be clear, however, that for Roman historiography, history, especially for Cato, was a means of showing two things. On the one hand, in his view, Rome was predestined to dominate; on the other hand, mores and character traits, either despised for deterrence or aimed at encouragement, were assigned to the various ethnic groups. The Ligurians were liars to Cato, while the Latins were the bravest men. Ethnization became an instrument of historical-political indoctrination.
In order to avoid hasty assignments of archaeological cultures to certain ethnic-political formations, today's research largely sticks to modern terms that are derived from early or important sites.
Alpine region
The Fritzens-Sanzeno culture (recognizable from the late 6th century BC, uniform culture from around 450 BC) in South Tyrol and Trentino replaced the late stages of the Laugen-Melaun culture and the inner culture to the north from. Its bearers could be identified as Raetians . They were discovered during the Roman campaigns in the Alps and their foreland in 15 BC. Like some other peoples. Important sites are Sanzeno in Val di Non , a settlement on Ganglegg in Schluderns in Vinschgau , the Rungger Egg in Seis am Schlern , the large villages in Brixen- Stufels in Eisack Valley and the grave fields of Pfatten in Adige Valley and Moritzing near Bozen . According to isotope examinations on corpse burns (members of the culture had burned their dead since the middle of the 5th century BC) of 92 individuals, no mobility from the north across the Alps to the south could be determined. Accordingly, migratory movements were not a factor in the spread of the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture.
Celts
Towards the end of the period to be dealt with here, the ethnic composition of northern Italy changed fundamentally once again as a result of immigrating Celts. The first traces of Celtic immigrants in mostly Etruscan northern Italy are from the 6th century BC. Demonstrable. Livius (V 33f.) Reports that at the time of King Tarquinius Priscus , i.e. around 550 BC BC, in Gaul there was an overpopulation and therefore famine and that seven Celtic tribes moved across the Alps to Italy. Even Justin (XXIV 4.1) reports thereof and give the number of 300,000 Celts. Since there were Gauls on both sides of the Alps , as the Romans called the Celts, they called the area they conquered Gallia cisalpina . From there they attacked Rome under Brennus (probably 387/386 BC) .
The Celts included the Salasser and Taurinians in the northwest, the Lepontians and Insubrians around Milan, the Cenomanians around Verona and Brescia, the Boier around Bologna, the Lingons and the Senones around Rimini. The Etruscans lost 18 cities to the invaders. In Marzabotto , 20 km south of Bologna, the bodies and weapons of the residents who had tried to defend the planned city of the 6th century based on the Greek model were still found.
Etruscan
The Iron Age Villanova culture , which preceded that of the Etruscans, got its name from a site in the Frazione Castenaso of Bologna . It was researched by Giovanni Gozzadini from 1853 to 1856. Characteristic are sculptures in which the ashes of the dead were in an urn, similar to the urn field culture . Initially characterized by a simple social structure, it became more hierarchical and complex. At the same time, their relatives developed metalworking and ceramic manufacturing techniques. The Villanova culture is used for both the Italians and the Etruscans .
From the 8th century onwards, the Etruscans, who called themselves Rasenna, created a complex culture that had a strong impact on Rome and thus later Europe. Its origin is also uncertain, but a local cultural continuity can be seen from around 1200 BC. Determine. In the written sources they appear around 700 BC. Chr. On. Hesiod ( Theogony 1016) speaks for the first time of the "Tyrsenoi" (Τυρσηνοῖσιν), and the oldest surviving inscriptions in the Etruscan language also come from this period . It is this language, which was obviously not related to that of the neighbors, that gave rise to speculations about its origin in ancient times. Herodotus (I, 94) suspected their origin in Lydia and a king's son Tyrsenus , who saved them from a famine in Asia Minor by leading their emigration. But Lydian and Etruscan are not related. It was also suspected that they came from the island of Lesbos . Dionysius of Halicarnassus (I, 26), on the other hand, counts the Etruscans among the autochthonous peoples. Antikleides associated the Etruscans with Lemnos , and in fact the Lemnian language spoken there until the end of the 6th century bears similarities to Etruscan. On the other hand, the Lemnians differ culturally little from the rest of the Aegean, and therefore this origin is also doubtful.
In the early days there were cultural contacts to the Aegean Sea as well as to the urnfield culture of Central Europe and the Balkans. During the time of the Villanova culture, in which the Etruscan culture can be grasped mainly through graves and the corresponding additions, in the course of the 8th century, in the course of the 8th century, cremation was replaced by cremation . The pottery ( impastoware ) was still made without a potter's wheel . From around 750 BC In contrast, specially built pottery workshops imitated the Greek models. At the same time, a large number of goods came from Greece, which often acted as a middleman, so that one spoke of an "orientalizing phase".
The later settlement areas of the Etruscan cities were soon built on with around 10 m long individual houses with an oval or rectangular floor plan. In these proto-urban settlements, a clear social differentiation set in, which is reflected in the greatly diverging wealth in the furnishing of the graves. Numerous soldiers' graves indicate the high status of this social group. At the beginning of the 7th century, huge Gentilian tumulus graves were built for the dominant aristocratic class, who found their final resting place in these hill structures.
This group apparently pursued a common foreign policy, as demonstrated by early treaties with Carthage, which delimited their spheres of interest. At the same time, the South Etruscan cities, especially Veji and Cerveteri , initially extended their territory to Campania , where Capua became the center of Etruscan rule. The most important excavation site, however, was Pontecagnano with its rich grave equipment. Also, Lazio was strongly etruskisiert how the rich princely tombs of Palestrina show. Even before 600 the Etruscan metropolises expanded into the Po plain, a century later a planned colonization began there. The cities probably appeared as single colonizers, similar to Genoa or Venice in medieval Italy .
On the one hand there were open conflicts with the Greeks, on the other hand there were close cultural relationships with them. For example, a king Arimnestus was the first non-Greek to visit the Olympian Zeus and bring him an official consecration gift; the Caeretans even had their own treasury in the holy district of Delphi . Herodotus (I, 167) reports of a questioning of the oracle there after the sea battle of Alalia (535 BC). Apparently the Etruscans and the Greeks saw themselves as joint heirs of a heroic epoch, which was reflected in multiple adoptions from Greek mythology , from the Iliad and the Odyssey .
Although some Etruscan words in the tradition can be inferred approximately from the context, a real bilingual , a longer Etruscan text with a precise translation into a more well-known language, does not yet exist. The Etruscans called their king mechl rasnal , King of the Etruscans, a title which, however, meant less an overarching ruler than urban potentates.
Traditional groups in central and southern Italy
In addition to these groups, numerous, predominantly Indo-European groups already lived in Italy in historical times, whose foreign or self-names have now been passed down. They include the Umbri in Umbria , then Latins , Samnites , Faliskers , Volsker and Equi in Latium ; the Picenos in the Marches and northern Abruzzo; the Samnites in southern Abruzzo, Molise and Campania; the Daunier in Apulian Daunia , Messapier and Peuketeer around Bari in Apulia ; Lucanians and Bruttians in southernmost Italy; Sikeler , Elymer and Sikanen in Sicily. Next to the Etruscans, the most politically successful were the Samnites, who concluded extensive alliances.
Writing monuments of the Rhaetians, Lepontians and Ligurians were found, but also of the Celts from the 4th century, then the Etruscans, whose sources go back to the 9th century, as well as the Volscians and Faliskers, the Illyrian group known as Messapians. Osco spoke the Samnites, Hirpiner, Lucanians and animal breeding, in today Gubbio was found in 1444 the most comprehensive monument Umbrian language; it consists of seven bronze tablets with prayers and cult statutes.
The southern groups were particularly strongly influenced by the Greek colonies, the Sicilian also by Phoenician and Carthaginian .
The area between the Abruzzo cultures and Molise was called the Middle Adriatic culture (7th – 5th centuries BC) because of the similarity of the burial equipment of Valerio Cianfarani , which he used to differentiate it from the Picenians in the Marches. The tribal names are Caracener, Equer, Frentaner, Marruciner, Marser, Päligner, Pentrer, Prätuttier, Vestiner. The Samnites emerged from the tribes of southern Abruzzo and Molise in the 5th century .
The Samnite tribes lived in the Apennines, where agriculture was only possible to a limited extent. In contrast to the plains of Lazio, wheat flourished poorly, wine and olives not at all. Therefore, they lived from the livestock industry, which included moving between different grazing areas. As a result, there were villages (pagi and vici) in this pastoral culture, but no urban structures. Archaeological studies have since shown that they imported Greek goods, and at the end of the 5th century, at least Allifae and Fistelia were minting their own coins. Cult places such as Pietrabbondante also prove a complex way of practicing religion. During the 5th century, some Samnite groups moved to the Lazio plains, where they developed an urban culture.
Similar developments characterize other peoples who lived in the low mountain ranges during this phase. Around 500 BC BC the Volscians moved from central Italy to the area southeast of Rome, thereby endangering its supremacy in Latium, as the treaty between Carthage and Rome from 509 still testifies.
Greeks
→ See also: Magna Graecia
In the Greek colonization of southern Italy, Achaia and Lokris initially played decisive roles on the Gulf of Corinth . In the decades before and after 700 BC Chr. Created Reggio Calabria , Paestum , Croton , Sybaris and Metaponto . They were founded by Achaean settlers, while Lokroi Epizephyrioi founded settlers from Lokris. Taranto was the only Spartan colony, there were numerous other settlements.
The Greek colonization of Sicily also fundamentally changed the situation there. Initially, Chalkis on Euboea was the driving force. At the end of the 8th century Ortygia was settled , which became the starting point for the later Corinthian foundation of Syracuse . This foundation was followed by Leontinoi , Zankle ( Messina ) and Rhegion . On the south coast was from Rhodes from Gela founded, from there turn Akragas . In the far west of the island, however, the Phoenicians predominated. Lower Italy was known as "Greater Greece" ( Magna Graecia ).
Phoenicians, Carthaginians
In the 8th century BC Phoenicians began to establish trading establishments on the west coast of Sicily, such as Motya ( Mozia ) or Zyz (Greek Panormos, today Palermo ). They used the branches as warehouses and stations for the extensive Mediterranean trade, so there were seldom conflicts with the Sicans and Elymers who lived there. On the other hand, there were open disputes with the Greeks, culminating in the Battle of Himera (480 BC) and ultimately leading to the Carthaginian domination of western Sicily.
A similar development took place in Sardinia, where the Phoenicians also established bases from the 8th century, such as Karali ( Cagliari ), later Nora , Sulki or Tharros . Here they could 540 BC. BC end the Greek settlement in Alalia on the neighboring Corsica in a sea battle. Since around 568 BC BC the Phoenician mother city Tire of Babylon, later controlled by the Persians, Carthage became the dominant city in the western Mediterranean. In contrast to Sicily, Carthage switched to a systematic settlement in Sardinia, similar to Corsica.
Ethnic movements at the beginning of extensive scriptural use
With the more widespread use of writing, the names of the peoples behind the archaeological cultures appear for the first time without having to be congruent with them. In the 6th to 4th centuries BC BC Celts occupied large parts of the Po plain, conquered Rome and moved to Apulia without taking permanent possession of these areas. Italic peoples, of which the northern group is summarized as Umbro-Sabeller ( Umbrer , Sabiner , Äquer and Marser ), and the southern group as Osker , moved from the mountain areas to the lower areas in the low mountain ranges adjoining to the south . The Samnites were one of them . The small group of Latino Faliskers lived in western central Italy, although they were related to the Italians , but differed significantly in terms of language and culture. In Apulia lived (from north to south) Daunians , Peuketeers , Messapians and Salentines , who went back to Indo-European ancestors. Finally, the more urban cultures of the Greeks in the south, the Carthaginians on the large islands and those of the Etruscans, who greatly expanded their areas of influence and settlement areas, were added. The Ligurians in the north-west and the Sicans of central Sicily were also included in the indigenous population . It shows up in the 4th century BC BC, for example with Isocrates that the fact that a people was autochthonous resulted in a high reputation.
History of prehistoric archeology in Italy
The interest in the material remnants of the past, which go beyond the written sources, goes back at least to the Renaissance . But first one dealt with the artefacts of classical antiquity. For example, Flavio Biondo wrote a work on the ruins of Rome in 1482 ( Romæ Triumphantis Libri Decem ). Nevertheless, there can be no question of a system or a methodology, the remains illustrated what was believed to be known from the sources, even if Biondo is considered one of the founding fathers of archeology. This also applies to Cyriacus of Ancona (Italian: Ciriaco de 'Pizzicolli, around 1391 to around 1455), who copied numerous ancient Greek and Latin inscriptions.
Johann Joachim Winckelmann is regarded as the father of classical archeology ( History of Ancient Art , 1764), even if his focus was more on art history . The discovery of Pompei and Herculaneum in 1748, but especially the following excavations, led to a further advance in the development of archaeological techniques, but also assigned an additional role to the finds, as they were able to open up conditions and processes of research the written sources were not verifiable. The beginning of the exploration of the Roman catacombs brought about Christian archeology as a new subject , and so the Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia was created in 1816 on the instructions of Pope Pius VII . This was the first time that an institute was established in Italy that explicitly dealt with archeology beyond written sources. The German Archaeological Institute was founded in 1829 . From 1850 Giovanni Battista de Rossi pursued the exploration of the 60 catacombs.
At the same time, efforts began to divide the written history into stone, bronze and iron ages according to the salient materials of its material culture (cultura materiale) and to break away from the more aesthetic consideration of contemporary art history. Luigi Pigorini , for example, called for the objects to be assigned and systematically excavated to the groups recognized as different cultures.
Despite some advances, the institutional framework of science lagged far behind, so that Italian archeology became increasingly isolated after the turn of the century. The establishment of the Comitato per le Ricerche di Paleontologia Umana in Italia in Florence initially did little to change this. Between 1898 and 1925, the excavations at the Roman Forum took place under the direction of Giacomo Boni , Nino Lamboglia worked in Liguria, where he founded the Società Storico Archeologica Ingauna in 1933 and the Istituto Internazionale di Studi Liguri in 1937 , which he directed until 1977. In 1974 he received the first Italian chair for medieval archeology . Systematic stratigraphy was given increasing priority in the newly created archaeological disciplines . In 1925 Florence became the seat of the Istituto Nazionale di Studi Etruschi ed Italici , in 1954 the seat of the Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria , as the palaeontological institute had been there since 1912. The latter institute managed to coordinate the work of the various research institutions.
New impulses also emerged from 1940 and especially in the post-war period through the excavations of Luigi Bernabò Brea in Arene Candide , which also made international developments fruitful for Italy's archeology. Whereas the fascist regime had devoted the excavation activity to the imagined size of the Roman Empire, the extensive destruction of the Second World War often led to emergency excavations; But the Allied aerial reconnaissance from 1943 onwards also revealed numerous new sites. At the same time, the temporal horizon of archeology expanded into the industrial age on the one hand and into the earliest prehistory on the other. Scientific methods of dating were increasingly used to research them.
In the 1960s, the impulses from anthropology and ethnology , which led to new approaches in the Anglo-Saxon region , intensified . The procedural and post-procedural archeology , the Marxist and gender archeology , the neo-evolutionist and the cognitive archeology expressed that the approaches with which societies could be recorded also penetrated into prehistory. These approaches had little influence on Italy; The fierce controversies in the Anglo-Saxon region only reached the country in a milder form after a detour.
The North Americans, in particular, placed the cognitive and organizational methods of anthropology and ethnohistory in the foreground and criticized the mere collecting and systematising activities of the “traditional” archaeologists. For them, the cultural processes were in the foreground, which they had researched particularly intensively on the basis of the history of the Indians of North America and which in turn gave the subject its own processes, theories, cooperation and patterns of interpretation, especially in the USA and Canada. This resulted in new approaches to settlement models and relationships with the environment and the emergence of long-distance trade. This direction was in turn criticized by British archaeologists, who rejected the abstractness of the Americans and placed the specificity of archaeological research in the foreground. From the 1970s onwards, the consideration of coherent, larger spaces in their internal order increasingly became the focus in Italy. There the influence of these directions was rather small until the end of the 20th century, but more recent works show that the Anglo-Saxon influences are increasingly being adapted according to local conditions.
Source editions
- Helmut Rix (ed.): Etruscan texts. Volume 1: Introduction, concordance, indices (= ScriptOralia. Series A: Classical Studies Series. Vol. 6). Gunter Narr, Tübingen 1991. ISBN 3-8233-4476-5
- Luca Antonelli (Ed.): I Piceni. Corpus delle fonti. La documentazione letteraria , Rome 2003. ISBN 88-8265-242-4
- Henricus Hubertus Janssen (Ed.): Oscan and Umbrian Inscriptions with a Latin Translation , Brill, Leiden 1949.
- Clizia Voltan (ed.): Le fonti letterarie per la storia della Venetia et Histria , Istituto veneto di scienze, lettere ed arti, 1989.
literature
Overview works
- Robert Leighton : Sicily before History. An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age , Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1999. ISBN 0-8014-3620-6
Paleo- and Mesolithic
- Marta Arzarello, Carlo Peretto: Out of Africa. The first evidence of Italian peninsula occupation , in: Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 65-70.
- Margherita Mussi : Earliest Italy. An Overview of the Italian Paleolithic and Mesolithic , Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers, New York u. a. 2001. ISBN 0-306-46463-2
- Fabio Martini: Archeologia del Paleolitico. Storia e culture dei popoli cacciatori-raccoglitori , Carocci, Rome 2008. ISBN 978-88-430-4464-1
- Gianfranco Biondi, Fabio Martini, Olga Rickards , Giuseppe Rotilio: In carne e in ossa. DNA, cibo e culture dell'uomo preistorico , Bari 2006. ISBN 978-88-420-8144-9
- Royston Clark: The Mesolithic Hunters of the Trentino. A Case Study in Hunter-Gatherer Settlement and Subsistence from Northern Italy , Doctoral Thesis, University of Southampton 1999, J. and E. Hedges, 2000. ISBN 978-1-84171-125-6
Neolithic
- Fabio Cavulli: Abitare il Neolitico. Le più antiche strutture antropiche del Neolitico in Italia settentrionale , Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, Trento 2008.
- Andrea Pessina, Vincenzo Tiné: Archeologia del Neolitico. L'Italia tra VI e IV millennio aC , Carocci, Rome 2008. ISBN 978-88-430-4585-3 (2nd reprint. Ibid 2010)
- John Robb: The Early Mediterranean Village. Agency, Material Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic Italy , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge u. a. 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-84241-9
Copper and Bronze Ages
- Alberto Cazzella, Maurizio Moscoloni: Sviluppi culturali eneolitici nella penisola italiana , in: Alberto Cazzella, Maurizio Moscoloni: Popoli e civiltà dell'Italia Antica , Volume 11, Biblioteca di Storia Patria, Rome 1992, pp. 349-643.
- Daniela Cocchi Neck (Ed.): L'antica età del bronzo. Atti del Congresso di Viareggio, 9-12 Gennaio 1995 , Octavo, Florence 1996. ISBN 88-8030-051-2
- Daniela Cocchi Neck (Ed.): L'età del Bronzo recente in Italia , Atti del congresso nazionale di Lido di Camaiore, 26-29 October 2000. Baroni, Viareggio 2004. ISBN 88-8209-317-4
- Alessandra Manfredini (ed.): Le dune, il lago, il mare. Una comunità di villaggio dell'età del rame a Maccarese (Origines) , Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria, Florence 2002.
- Mark Pearce: Bright Blades and Red Metal. Essays on north Italian prehistoric metalwork , Accordia Research Institute - University of London, London 2007. ISBN 978-1-873415-33-7
- Salvatore, Piccolo (2018). Bronze Age Sicily . Ancient History Encyclopedia .
- Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri : L'Età del Bronzo finale nella penisola italiana , in: Padusa 44 (2008) 7–54. online at Academia.edu
Iron age
- Carl Waldman, Catherine Mason (Eds.): Encyclopedia of European Peoples , Infobase, New York 2006. ISBN 978-0-8160-4964-6
- Loredana Capuis: I Veneti. Società e cultura di un popolo dell'Italia preromana , Milan 2004. ISBN 88-304-1132-9
- Luisa Franchi dell'Orto (Ed.): The Picener. One People of Europe , De Luca, Rome 1999. ISBN 88-8016-330-2 (exhibition catalog)
- Sybille Haynes : Etruscan Civilization. A Cultural History , The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles 2000. ISBN 0-89236-575-7 (German: Kulturgeschichte der Etrusker , revised, von Zabern, Mainz 2005. ISBN 3-8053-3381-1 )
- Friedhelm Prayon : The Etruscans. History - Religion - Art (= Beck'sche Reihe. CH Beck Wissen 2040), 5th revised edition. Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-59812-8
- Gilda Bartoloni: La cultura villanoviana. All'inizio della storia etrusca , Carocci, Rome 2002. ISBN 978-88-430-2261-8
- Giovannangelo Camporeale (Ed.): The Etruscans Outside Etruria , Getty Publications, Los Angeles 2004.
- Gianluca Tagliamonte: I Sanniti. Caudini, Irpini, Pentri, Carricini, Frentani , Longanesi, Milan 1996. ISBN 88-304-1372-0
- Raimondo Zucca: I popoli italici e le origini di Roma , Jaca Book, Milan 2004. ISBN 978-88-16-43629-9
- Gary Forsythe: A Critical History of Early Rome. From Prehistory to the First Punic War , University of California Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-520-24991-2
- Paolo Bernardini, Rubens D'Oriano, Maria Pamela Toti: I Fenici delle isole , Giunti 2000, Florence ISBN 978-88-09-01933-1
- Ferruccio Barreca: La civiltà fenicio-punica in Sardegna , Sassari 1986.
- Thomas H. Carpenter, Kathleen M. Lynch, Edward GD Robinson: The Italic People of Ancient Apulia , Cambridge University Press, 2014. ( Japyger , Daunier , Peuketier , Messapier )
- Dieter Mertens : Cities and Buildings of the Western Greeks. From the colonization time to the crisis around 400 BC , Hirmer, Munich 2006. ISBN 3-7774-2755-1
- Norbert A. Przesang: Magna Graecia. The Greeks in southern Italy and Sicily. Manual for study travelers and students , Projekt-Verlag Cornelius, Halle 2009. ISBN 978-3-86634-832-5
bibliography
- Enrico Procelli (ed.): Bibliografia della Preistoria e Protostoria della Sicilia e delle isole minori , Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria, Florence 2005.
History of science
- Alessandro Guidi: Italian Prehistoric Archeology in the International Context , in: Fragmenta 2 (2008) 109–123 ISSN 1784-410X (History of Science from 1860 to 1945).
- Gabriella Spedini: Antropologia evoluzionistica , Padua 2005. ISBN 88-299-1718-4
- Mauro Cristofani: La scoperta degli Etruschi. Archeologia e antiquaria nel '700 , Rome 1983.
- Mauro Cristofani: Scripta selecta. Trenta anni di studi archeologici sull'Italia preromana , 2 vols., Rome 2001.
- Giuliana Calcani: Storia dell'archeologia. Il passato come ricerca di attualità , Rome 2007.
- Silvana Condemi et al. a. (Ed.): Proceedings of the international Congress to commemorate “150 years of Neanderthal discoveries, 1856 - 2006” , Volume 2: Nicholas J. Conard , Jürgen Richter (Ed.): Neanderthal Lifeways, Subsistence and Technology. One Hundred and Fifty Years of Neanderthal Study , Springer, Dordrecht u. a. 2011. ISBN 978-94-007-0414-5
- Paul Mac Kentrick: Le pietre parlano. Nuova storia dell'archeologia in Italia , Longanesi, Milan 1976.
- Lewis Binford : Preistoria dell'uomo. La nuova archeologia , Rusconi Libri, Milan 1990.
- Fabio Maniscalco: Mare Nostrum. Fondamenti di archeologia subacquea , Naples 1999.
- Colin Renfrew , Paul Bahn: Archeologia. Teorie, Metodi e Pratica , Zanichelli, Bologna 2006 (English 1991). ISBN 0-500-27867-9
- Colin Renfrew, Ezra BW Zubrow: The Ancient Mind. Elements of Cognitive Archeology , Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-521-45620-7
- Massimo Vidale: Che cos'è l'etnoarcheologia , Carocci, Rome 2004.
methodology
- Andrea Carandini : Storie dalla terra. Manuale di scavo archeologico , Einaudi, Turin 1991.
Web links
- Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria: LI Riunione Scientifica. Italia tra Mediterraneo ed Europa: mobilità, interazioni e scambi , Forlì, 12. – 15. October 2016 , brief overview, literature lists
- Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria in Florence
- Centro Studi Preistoria e Archeologia in Milan
- Confederazione Italiana Archeologi
- Associazione Italiana Archeologi Subacquei (Underwater Archeology)
- Archeologia Subacquea Speleologia Organizzazione NETwork in Rome
- Website about Luigi Bernabò Brea (Italian and English)
- Archeologia & Metodologie , website of Prof. Maura Medri on methodology (ital.)
- Istituto Nazionale di Studi Etruschi ed Italici
Remarks
- ^ "Distinction of wealth, status and prestige are readily observed in burial types and grave goods" (Shan MM Winn: Heaven, Heroes, and Happiness. The Indo-European Roots of Western Ideology , Boston 1995, p. 77).
- ↑ Nicolas Rolland: The earliest hominid dispersals beyond Subsaharan Africa: A survey of underlying causes , in: Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 54-64.
- ↑ Marta Arzarello, Federica Marcolini, Giulio Pavia, Marco Pavia, Carmelo Petronio, Mauro Petrucci, Lorenzo Rook, Raffaele Sardella: L'industrie lithique du site Pléistocène inférieur de Pirro Nord (Apricena, Italie du sud): une occupation humaine entre 1, 3 et 1,7 Ma / The lithic industry of the Early Pleistocene site of Pirro Nord (Apricena South Italy): The evidence of a human occupation between 1.3 and 1.7 Ma , in: L'Anthropologie 113,1 (2009) 47-58 .
- ↑ Vincent Lebreton: Paysages et climats des premiers hominidés en Italie , John and Erica Hedges Ltd., 2004, p. 37
- ↑ Giovanni Muttoni, Giancarlo Scardia, Dennis V. Kent: Human migration into Europe during the late Early Pleistocene climate transition , in: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 296.1-2 (2010) 79-93.
- ^ Margherita Mussi : Earliest Italy. An Overview of the Italian Paleolithic and Mesolithic . Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers, New York a. a. 2001, p. 19.
- ^ Margherita Mussi: Earliest Italy. An Overview of the Italian Paleolithic and Mesolithic , Springer, 2001, p. 18.
- ↑ Giovanni Muttoni, Giancarlo Scardia, Dennis V. Kent, Enrico Morsiani, Fabrizio Tremolada, Mauro Cremaschi, Carlo Peretto: First dated human occupation of Italy at ~ 0.85 Ma during the late Early Pleistocene climate transition , in: Earth and Planetary Science Letters 307 (2011) 241-252.
- ↑ Le "ciampate del diavolo", BBC and RAI 3: Tora e Piccilli CE "Le Ciampate del Diavolo" .
- ↑ Most recently, Alejandra Ortiz, Shara E. Bailey, Gary T. Schwartz, Jean-Jacques Hublin , Matthew M. Skinner: Evo-devo dealt with a model to clarify the question of how the diversity of molars came about models of tooth development and the origin of hominoid molar diversity , in: Science Advances 4,4, April 11, 2018 ( online ).
- ↑ Mauro Cremaschi Carlo Peretto: Les sols d'habitat du site paleolithique d'Isernia La Pineta (Molise, Italy Centrale) , in: L'Anthropology 92 (1988) 1017-1040.
- ^ Claudia Abruzzese, Daniele Aureli, Roxane Rocca: Assessment of the Acheulean in Southern Italy: New study on the Atella site (Basilicata, Italy) , in: Quaternary International 393 (January 2016) 158-168.
- ↑ Grotta Paglicci ( Memento of the original of March 3, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .
- ↑ Mauro Cremaschi, Francesca Ferraro, Marco Peresani, Antonio Tagliacozzo, Alberto Broglio, Giovanni Dalmeri: La Grotta di Fumane: nuovi contributi su stratigrafia, cronologie, faune a miromammiferi ed industrie musteriane , in: Alberto Broglio, Giovanni Dalmeri: Pitture paleolitiche venete , Verona 2005, pp. 12-22.
- ↑ Marco Perseani: La grotta di San Bernardino. Le piu antiche tracce dell'uomo preistorico nel territorio Vicentino , Verona 1996.
- Jump up ↑ Diego E. Angelucci, Michele Bassetti: Humans and their landscape from the Alpine Last Glacial Maximum to the Middle Holocene in Trentino: geoarcheological considerations , in: Preistoria Alpina, 44 (2009) 1-6.
- ^ Gary R. Scott and Luis Gibert: The oldest hand-axes in Europe , in: Nature 461 (2009) 82-85.
- ^ Margherita Mussi: Earliest Italy. An Overview of the Italian Paleolithic and Mesolithic , Springer, 2001, p. 36.
- ↑ On the earliest evidence of fire use in Europe see: Wil Roebroeks , Paola Villa: On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe , in: PNAS , March 14, 2011 doi: 10.1073 / pnas.1018116108
- ↑ Marta Camps: Sourcebook of Paleolithic Transitions. Methods, Theories, and Interpretations , Springer, 2009, p. 201.
- ↑ Bertrand Roussel: Musée de Terra Amata , Réseau Culture science en Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, November 22, 2017.
- ^ Paolo Villa: Terra Amata and the Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of southern France , Berkeley: University of California Press 1983.
- ↑ Wil Roebroeks , Paola Villa: On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe , in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 13 (2011) 5209-5214.
- ↑ Spinapolice: Technologie lithique et circulation des matières premières au Paléolithique moyen dans le Salento (Pouilles, Italie meridionale): perspectives comportementales , diss., Università di Roma 'La Sapienza' - Université Bordeaux I, Rome 2008, p. 389 prove this .
- ↑ Margherita Mussi, Patrizia Gioia, Fabio Negrino: Ten small sites: the diversity of the Italian Aurignacian , in: Ofer Bar-Yosef , João Zilhão (Ed.): Towards a Definition of the Aurignacian , Instituto Portugues de Arqueologia, Lisbon 2006, Pp. 189-209, here: p. 206.
- ↑ Julien Riel-Salvatore: What is a transitional industry? The Uluzzian of southern Italy as a case study , in: Marta Camps (Ed.): Sourcebook of Paleolithic Transitions: Methods, Theories, and Interpretations , Springer 2009, pp. 377-396.
- ^ Margherita Mussi: The Neanderthals in Italy. A Tale of many Caves , in: Wil Roebroeks, Clive Gamble : The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe , Leiden University Press 1999, pp. 49-80.
- ↑ Margherita Mussi: Musteriano a denticolati su ciottolo in località S. Andrea di Sabaudia (Prov. Di Latina) , in: MF Rollo, B. Giaccio: Nuovi rinvenimenti e osservazioni geoarcheologiche in area albana , Origini 11 (2000) 45-70.
- ^ Margherita Mussi: Earliest Italy. An Overview of the Italian Paleolithic and Mesolithic , Springer, 2001, p. 155.
- ↑ Mammoth hunting has also been proven in Italy. See M. Mussi, P. Villa: Single carcass of Mammuthus primigenius with lithic artifacts in the Upper Pleistocene of Northern Italy , in: Journal of Archaeological Science 55 (2008) 2606-2613.
- ↑ Herbert Ullrich: Hominid Evolution. Lifestyles and Survival Strategies , Gelsenkirchen: Edition Archaea, 1999, p. 437.
- ^ Mary C. Stiner: Overlapping species “Choice” by Italian Upper Pleistocene predators , in: Current Archeology 33 (1992) 433-451.
- ↑ Gerrit Leendert Dusseldorp: A View to a kill. Investigating Middle Palaeolithic subsistence using an Optimal Foraging perspective , Leiden 2009, p. 50.
- ↑ Patricia Valensi, Eleni Psathi: Faunal Exploitation during the Middle Palaeolithic in south-eastern France and north-western Italy , in: International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 14 (2004) 256-272.
- ^ Vittorio Pesce Delfino, Eligio Vacca: Report of an archaic human skeleton discovered at altamura (Bari), in the "Lamalunga" district , in: Human Evolution 9,1 (1994) 1-9 and Vittorio Pesce Delfino, Antonio Todero, Eligio Vacca: L'uomo di Altamura , in: Fiorenzo Facchini, Giovanna Belcastro (ed.): La lunga storia di Neandertal. Biologia e comportamento , Milan: Editoriale Jaca Book, 2009, pp. 109–116.
- ↑ The Murge of Altamura , UNESCO.
- ↑ Abuhelaleh Bellal: Zooarchaeological and taphonomical analysis of the Epigravettian faunal remains of stratigraphic unit 11 at Riparo Tagliente (Verona-Italy) , in: Annali dell'Università degli Studi di Ferrara. Museologia Scientifica e Naturalistica, special edition, Ferrara 2008.
- ↑ U. Thun Hohenstein: Strategy di sussistenza adottate dai Neandertaliani nel sito del Riparo Tagliente (Prealpi venete) , in: U. Tecchiati & B. Sala (eds.): Archeozoological Studies in Honor of Alfredo Riedel, 2006.
- ^ Alberto Broglio, Giampaolo Dalmeri: Pitture paleolitiche nelle Prealpi venete. Grotta di Fumano e Riparo dalmieri , Verona 2005.
- ↑ Stefano Benazzi , Katerina Douka, Cinzia Fornai, Catherine C. Bauer, Ottmar Kullmer, Jiří Svoboda , Ildikó Pap, Francesco Mallegni , Priscilla Bayle, Michael Coquerelle, Silvana Condemi, Annamaria Ronchitelli , Katerina Harvat, Gerhard W. Weber : Early dispersal of modern humans in Europe and implications for Neanderthal behavior. In: Nature. Volume 479, number 7374, November 2011, pp. 525-528, doi : 10.1038 / nature10617 , PMID 22048311 .
- ↑ On southern Italy cf. Julien Riel-Salvatore, C. Michael Barton: Late Pleistocene technology, economic behavior, and land use dynamics in southern Italy , in: American Antiquity 69 (2004) 257-274.
- ^ Nicholas J. Conard , Jürgen Richter: Neanderthal Lifeways, Subsistence and Technology. One Hundred and Fifty Years of Neanderthal Studies , Springer 2011, p. 5.
- ↑ Alessandro Guidi, Marcello Piperno (ed.): Italia preistorica , Bari: Laterza 1992, p. 182ff.
- ^ Gianpiero di Maida: A comparative analysis of the Italian Moustérien , in: Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 20 (2011) 53-63, here: p. 54.
- ^ Nicholas Toth, Tim D. White: Assessing the ritual cannibalism hypothesis at Grotta Guattari , in: Quaternaria Nova, Vol. I, 1990-1991, Proceedings of the International Symposium The Fossil Man of Monte Circeo. Fifty Years of Studies on the Neandertals in Latium , ed. Amilcare Bietti, Eugenia Segre Naldini, 1992, pp. 213-222.
- ↑ Marco Peresani, Ivana Fiore, Monica Gala, Matteo Romandini, Antonio Tagliacozzo: Late Neandertals and the intentional removal of feathers as evidenced from bird bone taphonomy at Fumane Cave 44 ky BP, Italy , in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 10 (2011) 3888-3893.
- ↑ Annamaria Ronchitelli, Paolo Boscato, Paolo Gambassini: Gli Ultimi Neandertaliani in Italia , in: Fiorenzo Facchini, Maria Giovanna Belcastro (eds.): La Lunga Storia di Neandertal. Biologia e Comportamento , Milan: Jaca Book, 2009, pp. 257-287.
- ^ Gianpiero di Maida: A comparative analysis of the Italian Moustérien , in: Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 20 (2011) 53-63, here: p. 53.
- ↑ Paleoclimate of Lago Grande di Monticchio, Italy , Climate Diagnostics Directory.
- ↑ Marta Camps: Sourcebook of Paleolithic Transitions. Methods, Theories, and Interpretations , Springer, 2009, p. 385. An initially assumed similarity with finds in the Klisoura Cave on the Peloponnese in southern Greece is now controversial.
- ↑ Stefano Benazzi et al .: Early dispersal of modern humans in Europe and implications for Neanderthal behavior , in: Nature 479 (2011) 525-528, doi: 10.1038 / nature10617 .
- ↑ Joachim Hahn : Recognizing and determining stone and bone artifacts: Introduction to the artifact morphology , Archaeologica Venatoria 10, 2nd edition, Tübingen 1993, pp. 109-115.
- ^ João Zilhão , Francesco d'Errico (Ed.): The Chronology of the Aurignacian and of the Transitional Technocomplexes. Dating, Stratigraphies, Cultural Implications , 14th Congress of the Union Internationale des Sciences Préhistoriques et Protohistoriques - International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences, Lisbon 2003.
- ↑ Grotte di Castelcivita. ( Memento of the original from March 2, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Anna Maria Ronchitelli, Paolo Boscato, Paolo Gambassini: Gli ultimi Neandertalesi in Italia. Aspetti culturali , in: Fiorenzo Facchini, Maria Giovanna Belcastro (ed.): La lunga storia di Neandertal. Biologia e comportamento , Milan: Jaca Book 2009, pp. 257–287, here: p. 262.
- ↑ Anna Maria Ronchitelli, Paolo Boscato, Paolo Gambassini: Gli ultimi Neandertalesi in Italia. Aspetti culturali , in: Fiorenzo Facchini, Maria Giovanna Belcastro (ed.): La lunga storia di Neandertal. Biologia e comportamento , Milan: Jaca Book 2009, pp. 257–287, here: p. 266.
- ↑ Marco Peresani: A New Cultural Frontier for the Last Neanderthals: The Uluzzian in Northern Italy , in: Current Anthropology 49.4 (2008) 725-731.
- ↑ Marco Peresani: A New Cultural Frontier for the Last Neanderthals: The Uluzzian in Northern Italy , in: Current Anthropology 49.4 (2008) 725-731, here: p. 725.
- ↑ Marco Peresan: Fifty thousand years of flint knapping and tool shaping across the Mousterian and Uluzzian sequence of Fumane cave , in: Quaternary International (February 2011).
- ↑ Laura Longo, Elisabetta Boaretto, David Caramelli, Paolo Giunti, Martina Lari, Lucio Milani, Marcello A. Mannino, Benedetto Sala, Ursula Thun Hohenstein, Silvana Condemi: Did Neandertals and anatomically modern humans coexist in northern Italy during the late MIS 3? , in: Quaternary International (August 2011).
- ^ Shara E. Bailey, Timothy D. Weaver, Jean-Jacques Hublin : Who made the Aurignacian and other early Upper Paleolithic industries? In: Journal of Human Evolution. 57.1 (2009) 11-26.
- ↑ Annamaria Ronchitelli, Sonia Mugnaini, Simona Arrighi, Andrea Atrei, Giulia Capecchi, Marco Giamello, Laura Longo, Nadia Marchettini, Cecilia Viti, Adriana Moroni: When technology joins symbolic behavior: The Gravettian burials atGrotta Paglicci (Rignano Garganico - Foggia - Southern Italy ) in: Quaternary International (2014) 1–19 ( academia.edu ).
- ↑ Art. Mantel , in: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde , Volume 19, here: p. 239.
- ^ Paul Pettitt : The Palaeolithic Origins of Human Burial , Routledge, 2011, p. 182.
- ^ Fabio Marini, Domenico Lo Vetro: Grotta del Romito a Papasidero. Uomo, ambiente e culture nel Paleolitico della Calabria. Ricerche 1961-2011 , Florence 2011.
- ↑ Grotta del Romito
- ^ Robert Leighton: Sicily before History. An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age . Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1999, p. 31.
- ^ Robert Leighton: Sicily before History. An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age . Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1999, pp. 31f.
- ↑ Seven of these skeletons came from the San Teodoro Cave (Robert Leighton: Sicily before History. An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age . Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1999, pp. 34 and 36).
- ↑ Stephen L. Dyson, Robert J. Rowland: Shepherds, Sailors & Conquerors. Archeology and History in Sardinia from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages , Philadelphia 2007, p. 24.
- ↑ Fulco Pratesi: Storia della natura d'Italia , Soveria Manelli: Rubbettino Editore, 2010, o. S. (section Un mondo in equilibrio ).
- ↑ Johannes Müller : The East Adriatic Early Neolithic. The Impresso-Culture and the Neolithization of the Adriatic Region , Berlin 1994.
- ↑ On the interactions between farmers and hunters cf. Emanuela Cristiani, Annaluisa Pedrotti, Stefano Gialanella: Tradition and innovation between the Mesolithic and Early Neolithic in the Adige Valley (Northeast Italy). New data from a functional and residues analyzes of trapezes from Gaban rockshelter , in: Documenta Praehistorica XXXVI (2009) 191-205.
- ↑ Ceramics existed before and outside of the emergence of agriculture. This is shown by Peter Jordan, Marek Zvelebil: Ceramics Before Farming. The Dispersal of Pottery Among Prehistoric Eurasian Hunter-Gatherers , Walnut Creek: West Coast Press 2009.
- ↑ João Zilhão : Radiocarbon evidence for maritime pioneer colonization at the origins of farming in west Mediterranean Europe , in: PNAS 98, No. 24 (2001) pp. 14180-14185.
- ↑ Pessina, Tiné, p. 28ff.
- ↑ Michael Staubwasser, Harvey Weiss: Holocene climate and cultural evolution in late prehistoric – early historic West Asia. QuaternaryResearch, 2006 doi: 10.1016 / j.yqres.2006.09.001
- ↑ Mihael Budja: The 8200calBP 'climate event' and the process of neolithization in southeastern Europe , in: Documenta preahistorica 34 (2007) 191-201.
- ↑ Pessina, Tiné, p. 32.
- ↑ Joaquim Juan-Cabanilles, Bernat Martí Oliver: New Approaches to the Neolithic Transition: The Last Hunters and First Farmers of the Western Mediterranean , in: Oreto García-Puchol, Domingo C. Salazar-García (ed.): Times of Neolithic Transition along the Western Mediterranean , Springer, 2017, pp. 33–65, here: pp. 55 f.
- ↑ Stephen Shennan: The First Farmers of Europe. An Evolutionary Perspective , Cambridge University Press, 2018, p. 111.
- ↑ Stephen Shennan: The First Farmers of Europe. An Evolutionary Perspective , Cambridge University Press, 2018, p. 113.
- ↑ Stephen Shennan: The First Farmers of Europe. An Evolutionary Perspective , Cambridge University Press, 2018, p. 113.
- ^ John Robb: The Early Mediterranean Village. Agency, Material Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic Italy , Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 36.
- ^ John Robb: The Early Mediterranean Village. Agency, Material Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic Italy , Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 38.
- ^ John Robb: Time and Biography. Osteobiography of the Italian Neolithic lifespan , in: Yannis Hamilakis, Mark Pluciennik, Sarah Tarlow (eds.): Thinking through the Body. Archaeologies of Corporeality , Springer 2001, pp. 153-172, here: p. 164.
- ↑ The website of the municipality of Pisa gives an impression .
- ^ John Robb: The Early Mediterranean Village. Agency, Material Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic Italy , Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 52f.
- ↑ Carlo Luglie, François-Xavier Le Bourdonnec, Gérard Poupeau, Enrico Atzeni, Stéphan Dubernet, Philippe Moretto, Laurent Serani: Early Neolithic obsidian in Sardinia (Western Mediterranean): the Su Carroppu case , in: Journal of Archaeological Science 34.3 ( 2007) 428-439 and Carlo Lugliè, François-Xavier Le Bourdonnec, Gérard Poupeau, Consuelo Congia, Thomas Calligaro, Ignazio Sanna, Stephan Dubernet: Obsidian Economy in the Rio Saboccu Open-Air Early Neolithic Site (Sardinia, Italy) , in: Non-flint raw material use in prehistory. Old prejudices and new directions, Proceedings of the XVth UISPP Congress, 11 (Lisboa, September 4-9 2006) . British Archaeological Reports - International Series (1939). Archaeopress, Oxford 2009, pp. 203-215.
- ↑ Giulio Bugazzi, Massimo Odone, Giovanna Radi: The italian obsidian sources in: Archeometriai Műhely (2005) 1-13.
- ↑ Maria Antonietta Fugazzola Delpino, Mario Mineo: La piroga neolítica del lago di Bracciano ( "La Marmotta 1") , in: Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana 86 ns IV (1995) 197-266.
- ↑ Marco Masseti: The Most Ancient Explorations of the Mediterranean , in: Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, 4th series, Vol. 59, Suppl. 1, No. 1 (2008) 1-18, here: p. 2.
- ↑ Hans Riemann : On Gaudokultur and their Mediterranean relationships , in: Melanges Mansel, Ankara 1974, pp. 425–449.
- ↑ Felice Larocca: La miniera pre-protostorica di Grotta della Monaca (Sant'Agata di Esaro - Cosenza) , Roseto: Leonardo Zaccaro, 2005.
- ^ Roberto Maggi, Nadia Campana: Archeologia delle risorse ambientali in Liguria: Estrazione e sussistenza fra IV e III millennio BC , in: Atti del Colloque "Archéologies Transfrontaliéres. Alpes du Sud, Cote d'Azur, Piémont et Ligurie: bilan et perspectives de recherche ", Bulletin du Musée d'Anthropologie préhistorique de Monaco, Monaco 2008, pp. 65–74.
- ↑ In Val Petronio, east of Sestri Levante; see. Nadia Campana, Roberto Maggi, Mark Pearce: ISSEL DIXIT , in: La nascita della Paletnologia in Liguria. Atti del Convegno , Bordighera 2008, pp. 305-311. The title refers to Arturo Issel (1842–1922), who already suspected that copper mining was so old in 1879.
- ↑ His report, today in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples, can be found in P C. Sestieri: La necropoli preistorica di Paestum , in: Rivista di Scienze Preistoriche 1 (1946).
- ↑ A few finds from Calvi , Licola, Fratte, S. Mauro di Buccino and Taurasi in Campania are interpreted as remains of huts.
- ↑ Examples of such menhirs can be found here and here .
- ↑ Angelika Fleckinger (ed.): The glacier mummy from the Copper Age. New research on the Ice Man / La mummia dell 'età del rame . T 1. Writings from the South Tyrol Museum of Archeology. Vol. 1. Folio, Bozen 1999.
- ^ Jean-Pierre Mohen: Pierres vives de la préhistoire. Dolmens et menhirs , Paris 2009, pp. 274f.
- ↑ John Robb, pp. 300-304.
- ↑ Sigmar von Schnurbein: Atlas of Prehistory , 2nd ed., Theiss, Stuttgart, p. 75 f.
- ^ John Robb: The Early Mediterranean Village. Agency, Material Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic Italy , Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 296.
- ↑ Günther Hölbl : Relations between Egyptian culture and Old Italy , Leiden 1979, p. 7 refers to trade relations with North Africa.
- ↑ Mark Pearce: The Italian Bronze Age , in: Peter Bogucki, Pam J. Crabtree (Eds.): Ancient Europe 8,000 BC - AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World , Vol. 2, Thomson Gale, 2004, p. 34.
- ^ Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri: L'Italia nell'età del bronzo e del ferro. Dalle palafitte a Romolo (2200-700 aC) . Carocci, Rome 2010, passim.
- ^ Remco Bouckaert et al .: Mapping the origins and expansion of the Indo-European language family. Science 337: pp. 957-960 (2012)
- ^ David W. Anthony: The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. How Bronze-Age Riders from the Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press, Princeton et al. a. 2007, p. 367.
- ^ Eg Gianmarco Alberti: A Bayesian 14C chronology of Early and Middle Bronze Age in Sicily. Toward to Independent Absolute dating. In: Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) pp. 2502-2514 .; Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri: The Bronze Age in Sicily , in: Harry Fokkens, Anthony Harding (ed.), The Oxford Handbook often the European Bronze Age , Oxford University Press 2013, pp. 653ff., 658ff.
- ↑ Francesco Carimi, Francesco Mercati, Loredana Abbate, Francesco Sunseri: Microsatellite analyzes for evaluation of genetic diversity among Sicilian grapevine cultivars , in: Genet Resources and Crop Evolution 57 (2010) 703-719, here: p. 704.
- ↑ A brief summary of the excavation results for Broglio di Tebisacce by R. Peroni at treccani.it
- ↑ László Bertosiewicz: Animals in Bronze age Europe. , in: Harry Fokkens, Anthony Harding (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook often the European Bronze Age. Oxford University Press 2013, p. 337.
- ↑ Rivista di archeologia 11 (1987) p. 14.
- ↑ Giovanni Colonna: Prima ricognizione nell'entroterra pyrgense, con particolare riguardo al problema dele tombe di Pian Sultano , in: Studi Etruschi 36 (1963) 149-167.
- ↑ Archeology: The Pompeii of the Bronze Age , in: GEO, June 11, 2002.
- ↑ Patrizia Petitti: Palafitte nel Lago di Mezzano , first in: Archeologia viva 52 (1995).
- ↑ The Millennium Bang, in: Die Zeit, April 10, 2003. Cf. C. Albore Livadie: Territorio e insediamenti nell'agro Nolano durante il Bronzo antico (facies di Palma Campania): nota preliminare , in: Actes du colloque L'Eruzione vesuviana delle “Pomici di Avellino” e la facies di Palma Campania (Bronzo antico): Atti del Seminario internazionale di Ravello, 15-17 July 1994 , Bari: Edipuglia 1999, pp. 203-245.
- ↑ The meanwhile earlier date comes from: Vittorio Giovanni Rizzone, Annamaria Sammito, Simona Sirugo: Il museo civico di Modica "FL Belgiorno". Guida delle collezioni archeologiche , Milan: Polimetrica 2009, p. 85.
- ↑ Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri: The Bronze Age in Sicily , in: Harry Fokkens, Anthony Harding (ed.), The Oxford Handbook often the European Bronze Age , Oxford University Press 2013, pp. 658f.
- ^ Times according to Anna Maria Betti Sestieri : The Bronze Age in Sicily. In: Anthony Harding, Harry Fokkens (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age. University Press, Oxford 2013, p. 655. According to evaluations of 14 C data, the Capo Grazano culture and thus the Early Bronze Age could also have started a little earlier (between 2400 and 2175), s. Gianmarco Alberti, A Bayesian 14C chronology of Early and Middle Bronze Age in Sicily. Toward to Independent Absolute dating. In: Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) pp. 2502-2514.
- ^ Robert Leighton: Sicily Before History. An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age. Cornell University Press, Ithaca - New York 1999, pp. 133-135.
- ^ Karl J. Narr : Handbuch der Urgeschichte , Volume 2, Bern, Munich: Francke 1975, p. 540.
- ^ Brian E. McConnell: The Early Bronze Age Village of La Muculufa and Prehistoric Hut Architecture in Sicily , in: American Journal of Archeology 96.1 (1992) 23-44 and Susan S. Lukesh: The Muculufa Master and Reconsiderations of Castelluccian Sequences , Joukowsky Institute for Archeology and the Ancient World, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island.
- ^ Robert Leighton: Sicily before History. An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age , Cornell University Press, 1999.
- ^ Igor Congiu: Nuraghi. Caratteri insediativi e tecnologie costruttive , Diss. Turin 2004.
- ^ Franck Léandri: Les mégalithes de Corse , Paris: Jean-Paul Gisserot, 2000, p. 6.
- ^ Günther Hölbl: Ägyptisches Kulturgut im Phoenician and Punic Sardinia , 2 volumes, vol. 1, Leiden: Brill 1986, p. 54.
- ^ Friedhelm Prayon : The Etruscans. History, religion, art , Beck, 1996, p. 21 f.
- ↑ Doubts about this were expressed by Jochen Bleicken : History of the Roman Republic , Munich: Oldenbourg 2004, p. 100.
- ↑ The ceramics are assigned to the late Helladic period III A2 to III C; after Gert Jan van Wijngaarden : Use and appreciation of Mycenaean Pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy (1600-1200 BC) , Amsterdam University Press 2002, p. 11.
- ^ Gary Forsythe: A Critical History of Early Rome. From Prehistory to the First Punic War , University of California Press 2006, table p. 329.
- ^ Friedhelm Prayon: The Etruscans. History Religion Art , 5th edition, Munich 2010, p. 21f. and p. 33f.
- ^ Roberto Maggi: Aspetti di archeologia del territorio in Liguria: la formazione del paesaggio dal Neolitico all'Età del Bronzo , in: Annali dell'Istituto Alcide Cervi 19 (1997) 143-162.
- ↑ Ron Pinhasi, Jay T. Stock (Ed.): Human Bioarchaeology of the Transition to Agriculture , Chichester: John Wiley & Sons 2011, Chapter 13.4.4: The Agricultural Transition in Liguria .
- ↑ "Pollarding" called. Cf. Ron Pinhasi, Jay T. Stock (Eds.): Human Bioarchaeology of the Transition to Agriculture , Chichester: John Wiley & Sons 2011, Chapter 13.1.1: Archaeological Background .
- ↑ Nadia Campana, Roberto Maggi, Mark Pearce: Miniere preistoriche di rame a Libiola e Monte Loreto , in: Angiolo del Lucchese, Roberto Maggi (ed.): Dal diaspro al bronzo. L'Età del Rame e del Bronzo in Liguria: 26 secoli di storia fra 3600 e 1000 anni avanti Cristo , La Spezia: Luna editore 1998, 138-141.
- ↑ A. de Pascale: 'Hammerstones from early copper mines': sintesi dei ritrovamenti nell' Europa e mel Mediterraneo orientale e prime considerazioni sui mazzuoli di Monte Loreto (IV millennio BC - Liguria) , in: Rivista di Studi Liguri 69 (2003) 5-42.
- ↑ In 1862, 165 tons of copper ore were mined there (Journal of the Society of Arts, December 4, 1868, Volume 17, London 1869, p. 45).
- Jump up ↑ Roberto Maggi, Mark Pearce: Mid fourth-millennium copper mining in Liguria, north-west Italy: the earliest known copper mines in Western Europe , in: Antiquity 79 (2005) 66-77.
- ↑ Jérôme Magail: Les gravures rupestres du Mont Bégo. Des activités et des rituels dans leurs temps (Alpes Maritimes, commune de Tende) , in: Bulletin du Musée d'anthropologie préhistorique de Monaco 46 (2006) 96-107.
- ^ Giò Barbera: Il Dolmen di Borgio Verezzi questo “sconosciuto” , IVG.it.
- ↑ Franco Marzatico offers an overview of the history of research: 150 years of lake-dwelling research in Northern Italy , in: Francesco Menotti (Ed.): Living on the lake in Prehistoric Europe: 150 years of Lake-Dwelling Research , Routledge 2004, p. 83-97.
- ↑ Doubts about this were expressed by Jochen Bleicken: History of the Roman Republic , Munich: Oldenbourg 2004, p. 3.
- ↑ Otto Herman Frey : To the helmet of Oppeano , in: Aquileia Nostra 57 (1986) 146-163.
- ↑ D. Candelato, A. Guidi, D. Peloso: Nuovi dati sul centro protourbano di Oppeano Veronese , in: A. Aspes (ed.): Preistoria Veronese. Contributi e aggiornamenti , Verona 2002, pp. 168-170 and A. Guidi, D. Peloso: Il centro protourbano di Oppeano Veronese . Papers in Italian Archeology VI, Vol. II, Oxford 2005, pp. 720-728.
- ↑ Art. Veneter , in: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde , Vol. 32, pp. 133-138, here: p. 137.
- ^ Gert Jan van Wijngaarden: Use and Appreciation of Mycenaean Pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy (1600-1200 BC) , Amsterdam University Press 2002, pp. 229ff.
- ↑ On the late Bronze Age cultures of the Italian northwest, cf. Francesco Rubat Borel: Il Bronzo finale nell'estremo Nord ‐ Ovest italiano. Il gruppo Pont-Valperga , in: RScPreist 56 (2006) 429-482.
- ↑ Hubert Steiner: The research situation of the Laugen-Melaun culture in South Tyrol and Trentino - state of research, projects, new approaches , in: Michaela Lochner: The Urnfield Culture in Austria - Location and Outlook , Symposium of the Prehistoric Commission of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, 24. -25. April 2003, Vienna 2003, 30f.
- ^ Walter Leitner : Eppan - St. Pauls - a settlement of the late Bronze Age: a contribution to the inner-alpine Laugen / Melaun culture , Innsbruck, Habil., 1987.
- ^ Under the direction of Wilhelm Sydow: Final report on the excavation on the Breitegg, Gem. Nußdorf-Debant, East Tyrol , in: Archaeologia Austriaca 76 (1992) 129-177.
- ^ Wolfgang Neubauer : Flums-Gräpplang. A late Bronze Age settlement in Switzerland , Office for Cultural Preservation of the Canton of St. Gallen 1994.
- ↑ Archaeological and geophysical investigations in the area of the Bronze Age (fire sacrifice place) and Roman (sanctuary) site "Burgstall" on Mount Sciliar (South Tyrol, Italy) ( Memento from October 16, 2012 in the Internet Archive ), contribution by the University of Mainz and P. Haupt: Bronze Age burnt offering place and Roman sanctuary. New archaeological investigations on the Schlern , in: Der Schlern 83,8 (2009) 4-21, archive.org, December 16, 2012.
- ↑ Colin McEvedy Richard Jones: The Atlas of World Population History , Penguin 1978, p 106th
- ↑ Martin Trachsel: Prehistory and Early History: Sources, Methods, Goals , UTB, 2008, p. 46.
- ↑ Larissa Bonfante : The Barbarians of Ancient Europe: Realities and Interactions , Cambridge University Press 2011, p. 11.
- ↑ Ulrich Gotter : Cato's Origines. The historian and his enemies , in: Andrew Feldher (Ed.): The Cambridge companion to the Roman historians , Cambridge University Press 2009, pp. 108-122.
- ^ Paul Gleirscher : Die Räter , Rätisches Museum Chur 1991, pp. 12-15.
- ↑ Peter Gamper: The settlement of the Latène period on Ganglegg in South Tyrol , Rahden 2006.
- ↑ Amei Lang, Dominika Klaut, Larissa Otto: About Brenner and Reschen - the early Fritzens-Sanzeno culture , in: Archeology in Germany 01 | 2020, p. 28 f.
- ^ Martin Bentz , Christoph Reusser : Marzabotto. Etruscan city planning , Mainz 2008.
- ^ Dionysios of Halicarnassus I, 30, 3rd ( English edition , Greek version, edition from 1586 ).
- ↑ Larissa Bonfante: The Barbarians of Ancient Europe. Realities and Interactions , p. 11.
- ↑ Marianne Heidenreich: Christian Gottlob Heyne and the old story , de Gruyter, 2006, p. 511.
- ↑ For example John Franklin Hall: Etruscan Italy. Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era , Indiana University Press, 1996, p. 367. He distinguishes between an early orientalization phase (725-625 BC) and a late one (625-575).
- ↑ Reinhart Herzog, Peter Lebrecht Schmidt (ed.): Handbuch der Latinischen Literatur der Antike , Vol. 1, ed. By Werner Suerbaum, Munich: Beck 2002, p. 14f.
- ↑ Luisa Franchi dell'Orto (ed.): The Picener. One people of Europe. Exhibition catalog Frankfurt a. M. 1999 , Rome 1999.
- ↑ Gianluca Tagliamonte: I Sanniti: Caudini, Irpini, Pentri, Carricini, Frentani , Milan 1996th
- ↑ Lukas Grossmann: Rome's Samnite Wars. Historical and historiographical studies on the years 327 to 290 BC Chr , Düsseldorf: Wellem 2009, p. 16.
- ^ Hermann Bengtson : Greek history. From the beginnings to the Roman Empire , special edition of the 5th edition, Munich 1979, p. 70f.
- ↑ Michael Kleu: From intervention to rule. On the intention of Carthaginian interventions in Sicily up to the peace of 405 , in: David Engels, Lioba Geis, Michael Kleu (eds.): Between ideal and reality. Rule in Sicily from ancient times to the late Middle Ages . Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2010, pp. 13–36.
- ^ Ferruccio Barreca: La civiltà fenicio-punica in Sardedegna , Sassari 1986.
- ↑ Wolfgang Orth : Autochthony and "Eastern Colonization". On the political concept of Isocrates , in: pp. 90–97, here: pp. 90f.
- ↑ Giuseppe A. Possedoni (ed.): Ciriaco d'Ancona e il suo tempo , Ancona: Canonici of 2002.
- ^ Eduard Gerhardt : Principles of Archeology , 1833.
- ↑ This is how Alessandro Guidi describes it: Italian Prehistoric Archeology in the International Context , in: Fragmenta 2 (2008) 109–123.
- ^ Hans-Jürgen Huebner: Archeology , History of Canada.
