History of the Upper Palatinate
The present article deals with the history of the Upper Palatinate limited to the territory of today's administrative district Upper Palatinate . A forerunner was the Bavarian Nordgau , which will be discussed in early history, it also included areas in today's Upper Bavaria and Middle Franconia . The Upper Palatinate was created as a territory in 1329 when the Wittelsbach family was divided into a Palatinate and a Bavarian line. The Upper Palatinate has been reunited with Bavaria since 1628 , but the term "Upper Palatinate" was subsequently transferred to the region north of the Danube and was therefore retained. With the Bavarian territorial reform of 1837, the modern administrative district of Upper Palatinate was created, which was much larger in the south than the former imperial principality . The land between the Danube and the Fichtel Mountains was colonized by several waves of settlements , the Bavarian population was able to assert itself in the High Middle Ages , Slavs and immigrants from the western Reich were assimilated.
Early settlement
→ to the prehistory of Bavaria
The Regensburg Danube arch has been settled since the Stone Age. At the beginning of 2006, about 100 m east of the walls of the later legionary camp, Celtic graves with partly high-quality grave goods were found. They were dated to around 400 BC. Dated. After pushing back the Marcomanni to about 170 n. Chr. Was on the orders of Emperor Aurelius Mark built from about 175 the legion camp Castra Regina (bearing the rain). This stone building with its 10 meter high wall, four gates and numerous towers can still be seen today in the plan of Regensburg's old town. A legacy of the Roman colonization is the Baierwein , which is still grown today between Regensburg and Wörth on the Danube. In contrast, the Upper Palatinate mountain and woodland north of the Danube remained the home of Celtic and Germanic tribes in early history. Pollen analyzes suggest pasture farming around the year zero, while arable farming did not spread across the board until 1000 years later. The castle hill of Kallmünz is believed to have housed a Celtic oppidum . An extensive prehistoric complex (approx. 50 ha) from the Bronze Age (approx. 2000–1900 BC) proves the attractiveness of this rock spur between Naab and Vilstal with evidence of settlement from all periods. Another wall (approx. 1200 BC) rises up in front of the castle ruins, which is popularly known as the "Hungarian Wall" and thus probably served as a retreat for the population of the area a good two thousand years later during the Hungarian invasions. In addition to these settlement finds, there are literary mentions of the Narisker or Varisker tribe , who are largely eliminated as the forerunners of the later Bavarians, but were located north of the Danube arc in Roman times.
In Lauterhofen , Sulzbach , Nabburg and Cham , archaeological excavations have proven that the Bavarians were the founders, and settlement began around the year 680, i.e. under the rule of Duke Theodos II and much later than south of the Danube. In 725 the Franks intervened in disputes over the throne of the Agilolfinger and helped Duke Hugbert to power. Karl Martell received a part of the northern Gau for this, but unfortunately it is not documented which part it was exactly.
In the Frankish division of the empire in 741, neither Bavaria nor the Nordgau was mentioned as a sovereign territory, in contrast to Alemannia and Thuringia, which were mentioned very well. That means that Bavaria was not part of the Franconian Empire until 740. In 744 the two Franconian house keepers attacked Duke Odilo , defeated their own brother-in-law, forced him to recognize the Franconian sovereignty and took away the rest of the northern district from him, only the area around Cham remained in Bavaria. The Franconian imperial border thus moved directly towards the Bavarian residence of Regensburg, interventions in Bavaria were thus possible without great effort and the formerly "royal" rule of the Agilolfinger ended as early as 788. The place names with the endings -ing, -hausen, -hofen and -stetten suggest Bavarian settlements, so there were initially some in the areas around Cham , Amberg , Schwarzenfeld and a little later also around Schwandorf , Neumarkt , Sulzbach-Rosenberg and Vohenstrauss , supplemented by some early military bases. With the exception of the Cham basin, the settlement seems to have been very patchy. In 1003, Thietmar von Merseburg reported that King Heinrich II came to Speinshart to hunt bears and bison that had already been exterminated elsewhere as a result of the lively settlement activity. Speinshart, however, was north of the Bavarian settlement.
Slavic settlement activity was particularly important for the northern and southeastern Upper Palatinate. The Slavs , fleeing the Avars , came to the region via the Bohemian Forest , according to another doctrine, from Pannonia (western Hungary) along the Danube to the northwest, and founded small, scattered villages and hamlets ( Bavaria Slavica ) in clearly delimited settlement chambers. An aristocratic upper class has now also been proven (Barbaraberg near Speinshart, Flednitz ). Even today, many place names in the Upper Palatinate are reminiscent of these early Slavic settlements, typical place name endings here are -itz, -as and -au, the inhabitants of which lived mainly from hunting, cattle breeding and fishing.
After 817, Bavaria was re-established under Ludwig the German and the north gau was united with the ancestral home. Apart from the Sulzbach and Nabburg residences, the country remained wild. For example, at the time of Charlemagne, no weapons were allowed to be sold in the area east of the lower Naab . The Franks feared the smuggling of weapons into the Moravian Empire , which they could not bring completely under their control. Contemporary reports suggest that the Upper Palatinate was a military exclusion zone. With the heavy defeat of the East Franconian army in the Battle of Pressburg , massive cuts resulted in the Upper Palatinate area. On the one hand, the East Franconian Carolingians died out shortly afterwards (911), and since the Bavarian dukes were also unable to prevail against the Saxons and Franks, Regensburg lost its function as the main German Palatinate. On the other hand, the time of the Hungarian invasions into the empire began, which should last 50 years. The Upper Palatinate was a transit area here, but there were also armed conflicts such as 948 near Floß and 949 near Luhe . In addition, King Heinrich I issued the Castle Regulations in 926 , with which extensive fortifications were built, which, for example, could be archaeologically proven in Nabburg . The "marca Napurch", as it is called in documents of July 29, 1040 and February 13, 1061, i.e. the margraviate of Nabburg, which was built around this fortress, was another forerunner of the Upper Palatinate.
There were several reasons why so many castles were built in the Upper Palatinate. On the one hand there was a multitude of competing dynasty families, first the Welfs and Popponen , then the Schweinfurters , the Diepoldinger Rapotons and the Sulzbachers ; on the other hand, the Upper Palatinate was a border region that relied on a well-functioning defense network. Large imperial castles in Cham , Nabburg and Eger were replaced by smaller castles and outposts, e.g. B. the castles in Parkstein , Flossenbürg and Stefling , added. The situation in the border region of the empire revealed that cities and markets and even churches were also fortified for defense purposes. The castles in the Upper Palatinate also served as a retreat for the alien nobility, while the Franks in the Nordgau were occupiers for its actual inhabitants.
10th to 12th centuries
Originally the Upper Palatinate was royal territory and was administered by the royal commissioners. After the Luitpoldingern the Babenberg Counts of Schweinfurt followed until Heinrich von Schweinfurt rose against the king and his territory, to which the then Nordgau also belonged, was split up. The defeat of the Schweinfurters and the extinction of his clan had serious consequences for the Upper Palatinate. The margrave had excellent connections with the Slavic rulers of Eastern Europe, he was allied with Duke Boleslaw of Poland and his daughter Judith von Schweinfurt was Duchess of Bohemia. This tradition broke off around 1050 and at the same time the documented and archaeological evidence of the Slavs in northern Bavaria also disappeared. This created a power vacuum in southern Germany, which the Salian rulers, especially Heinrich III. , deliberately left open, instead of installing new hereditary nobility, an official nobility was favored by margraves and foreign dukes. The Counts of Sulzbach , the Ortenburgers and the Counts of Andechs were loyal to the rich and the emperor.
Around the year 1100 the investiture dispute had been raging in the empire for 25 years. A high nobility opposition supported by the Pope tried to depose Emperor Heinrich IV . The young Bavarian nobles, Margrave Diepold III , were particularly active . von Vohburg , Count Berengar von Sulzbach and Count Otto von Habsburg-Kastl . They belonged to the founding circle of the reform monastery Kastl and the reform monasteries Berchtesgaden and Baumburg . The trigger for the fall of Heinrich IV was the assassination of Sieghard von Burghausen in February 1104 by his ministerials and citizens of Regensburg in front of the emperor's eyes. Sieghard had previously complained about Bavaria's royal resetting against Saxony and Franconia. His murder had embittered the dead man's relatives and friends because the emperor had not taken decisive action against those responsible. The heir to the throne, the elected King Heinrich V , had allegedly tried to mediate between Count Sieghard and the ministerials and therefore had a reason to resent his father for inaction. In November 1104, Heinrich V marched against the Saxon reform nobility in the army of his father Heinrich IV. During this punitive expedition, he renounced his father on December 12, 1104, thereby breaking the oath of allegiance to the ruling ruler. Following this, Heinrich V made his way to Regensburg. At the turn of the year 1104/05 he then sent messengers to Rome in order to be freed from the ban and the oath by the Pope . Pope Paschal II promised Henry V not only absolution, but also support in the fight against his father, on the condition that he would be a just king and ruler of the church as his successor . In the autumn of 1105 the armies of father and son faced each other on the Regen river . However, a battle was caused by the desertion of Margrave Leopold III. prevented by Austria and Duke Bořivoj II of Bohemia, who were important allies of the emperor. Before that, the Bohemian had plundered and devastated Diepold's possessions, which would later become the Upper Palatinate. Thereupon the emperor also fled to the Rhine, but was captured shortly afterwards, had to abdicate and died after another escape the following year. With the active support of the new king, Diepold III. became an important man in the empire and was able to get heavily involved in imperial politics for 20 years.
There was a sustained increase in the population in the 11th and 12th centuries, when the increase in population (triggered by improvements in agriculture and a milder climate) in Germany became scarce for settlements and agriculture, and German settlers increasingly poured into the east to develop new settlement areas. The Upper Palatinate was not only a transit area, but also one of the destinations itself. In the High Middle Ages, farmers, craftsmen and traders from Swabia, Bavaria and Rhine Franconia created the dense cultural landscape that is still characteristic of the landscape today. This intensive clearing and settlement activity, which lasted from the late 10th century to 1350, was reflected in place names ending in -richt, -ried and -reuth. But this interpretation is problematic, because the endings are pronounced as -rath and -riad, e.g. B. Etzenricht is called Azzariad in the dialect. In Czech, however, Hrad simply means castle. It is quite possible that this foreign word was temporarily taken up in the local dialect and, like Kulm, which in Czech means mountain or hill, was even used as a place name. Because the -reuth places were mostly combined with a German first name. The situation is clearer with names that end in -grün, -ficht, -thann or -wald. Here the forest was cleared. Names with the adjectives Schön-, Reich- and Gut- as prefixes also had an advertising character, locators had to look for settlers, the designation was the simplest means.
In the 12th century, a new element in the culture of the Upper Palatinate came to fruition, the founding and expansion of monasteries. A first attempt, the Chammünster monastery , was allegedly founded by Duke Odilo as early as 739 , but it was lost again in the course of the Hungarian invasions 200 years later. The Slavic inhabitants in the north of the region are still referred to as pagans around the year 1000, but the motive of proselytizing should not have played a major role. It is questionable to what extent the development of the country was a goal of the foundation, because the monasteries benefited mainly from donations from villages and landed property, and the monks rarely appeared as founders of villages and towns. The main trigger were the nobles, who feared for their souls, especially those whose inheritance was not clear. This is how the Benedictine monasteries Kastl (1103), Weißenohe (1109), Michelfeld (1119) and Ensdorf (1121) came into being. This was followed by the Cistercians with the Abbeys Waldsassen (1133) and Walderbach (1140), the Premonstratensians with Speinshart (1145) and finally the Cistercians with Pielenhofen (1240). Not all of these monasteries were as wealthy as the Waldsassen monastery, which was directly part of the empire, such as the very small Dominican convent of Pettendorf / Adlersberg (1274).
The Bishop's Church of Bamberg , founded in 1007 by King Heinrich II on what was once Schweinfurt's lands, also received significant influence over the entire area from Auerbach - Kemnath to Nittenau . The Bambergs were commissioned to Christianize the Slavs in Upper Franconia and the western Upper Palatinate and strategically became an important factor in royal power. Most of the Upper Palatinate belonged religiously to the diocese of Regensburg since 739 . As the chief bailiff of the Bamberg church, the Sulzbach family became an influential noble family. After the Sulzbachers died out in 1188, their inheritance, essentially the northern Upper Palatinate, fell to the Staufers , who built a bridge to Bohemia and Central Staufer Germany from the area between Eger, Nuremberg and Regensburg and created an economically prosperous empire. The late Staufers even renounced margraves in the northern part of the Gau and ruled here directly. In addition to the Hohenstaufen dynasty, there were a number of competing noble families and ecclesiastical mansions who took the opportunity to expand their possessions and their sphere of influence as well. Monasteries and nobility were also active economically from the beginning, the first verifiable brewery in today's Upper Palatinate was the Arnschwang Castle Brewery in 1150. This was only surpassed in our region by the Lower Bavarian Weltenburg monastery brewery in 1050, which is also the second oldest brewery Bavaria is.
Wittelsbach rule and division of the country
Anyone who has visited a few cities in the Upper Palatinate will usually notice the similar layout of the city centers spontaneously. A wide, rectangular square, mostly with the town hall in the middle, surrounded by magnificent town houses with Renaissance gables, forms the heart of almost every town in the Upper Palatinate. The main church of the city is usually a bit offset near one of the shorter sides of the complex. These places were originally markets and possibly also intended as tournament places, as indicated by the remote churches. They were designed and built in the Staufer period up to 1268. After the Sulzbachers died out in 1189, the Staufers acquired their own property and founded E.g. the new market in Vohenstrauss probably at the beginning of the 13th century, because in 1230 Altenstadt was already known as "veteri (old) vohendrezz". The old cities of Nordgau, however, broke away from the Bavarian state association in the 13th century, so in 1219 Nuremberg became an imperial city and in 1245 Regensburg followed it. The Nuremberg town charter became the determining municipal law in the Upper Palatinate and was first given to the town of Eger in 1242 , which at that time still belonged to Bavaria. It was not until the Wittelsbachers, as the successors of the Hohenstaufen, that they generously granted city rights in order to secure their rule in the Nordgau. In 1293 Cham , 1294 Amberg , 1296 Nabburg , 1298 Lauf , 1299 Schwandorf , 1301 Neumarkt , 1305 Sulzbach were raised to the rank of town. Under Emperor Ludwig the Bavarians follow Kastl in 1323 , Pleystein in 1331 , Neustadt an der Waldnaab in 1339 and Nittenau in 1345 . In the case of Weiden , of all places, the town elevation is not documented, but in 1396 Neustadt an der Waldnaab received Weiden city rights.
From the middle of the 12th century, the Wittelsbachers increasingly gained influence in the southern Upper Palatinate. After Heinrich the Lion was deposed in 1180, Otto von Wittelsbach , until then Count Palatine of Bavaria and thus Imperial Deputy in Bavaria, was enfeoffed with the Duchy of Bavaria by Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa . This marked the beginning of the 750-year rule of the Wittelsbach family in Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate. His son, Ludwig I der Kelheimer (1183–1231) was also given the Palatinate County near the Rhine in 1214 , thus establishing the connection between Bavaria and the Rhine Palatinate that lasted into the 20th century. Ludwig's grandson Ludwig II the Strict (1253–1294) inherited the Hohenstaufen possessions in southeastern Swabia and in the previously Hohenstaufen Nordgau after the end of Konradin in 1268 . Ludwig had been the guardian of his nephew Konradin, gave him the Duchy of Swabia and accompanied him on his Italian expedition in 1267 to Verona . He withdrew in time and was not involved in the downfall of Konradin, who was executed in Naples in 1268 . Materially, he benefited from his death, as Konradin appointed him as heir and ceded property in the Upper Palatinate and in south-west Bavaria to him. Ludwig von Rudolf von Habsburg received confirmation of these acquisitions as a prize for his support in the election of a king in 1273 . The Rintfleisch pogrom is a mass murder of Jews committed primarily in Franconia in 1298 , which also reached the Upper Palatinate in July of this year. The small town of Berching was affected with around 30 deaths and Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz with at least 40 deaths, according to another source 65 (including some Christians who had tried to protect Jews). It is recorded from Regensburg that the city council had to enforce the protection of the Jews against part of its own citizenship.
In 1255 Ludwig II and his younger brother Heinrich XIII. the previously jointly ruled legacy was divided, so that the larger, richer and more fertile Lower Bavaria fell to Heinrich, Upper Bavaria and the Palatinate, including the Upper Palatinate, fell to Ludwig. Ludwig followed his two sons Rudolf I and Ludwig IV . The two brothers were constantly at odds with each other, which ended in 1317 with Rudolf's retreat and in 1319 with his death. In 1329 Ludwig, Roman-German King since 1314 and Emperor since 1328, handed over the Rhine Palatinate and the larger, northern part of the northern district to Rudolf's sons in the house contract of Pavia . In the period that followed, the name Upper Palatinate (Latin: Palatinatus superior or Palatinatus Bavariæ ) and thus its current name developed for this state of the Palatinate in Bavaria . Amberg became the capital of the Upper Palatinate, from where administration was carried out by governors from Heidelberg , who were mostly the first-born, adult sons of the electors. The southeastern area around Cham and Burglengenfeld remained with the Bavarian line.
In addition to the Wittelsbach power complex, an additional, local noble family was able to establish itself in the 13th century, the Landgraves of Leuchtenberg , who already appeared as Counts under the Hohenstaufen, received the title of long rascals in 1196 and rose to imperial princes in 1440. Their headquarters developed around Leuchtenberg as well as the soon acquired Waldeck on the edge of the stone forest . From here they acquired Wernberg , Pleystein and Falkenberg , but lost most of it again through inheritance divisions (1209,1344,1463), feuds and mismanagement. Ulrich I (1293-1334) bought the goods back. He also received Schwarzenburg , Rötz and Waldmünchen , Reichenstein and Schönsee , as well as Pfreimd , which was made the residence of the landgraves from 1332. He fought side by side with Ludwig the Bavarian and defeated Friedrich the fair in the battle of Mühldorf. Friedrich became a prisoner in Trausnitz Castle in the valley . In 1375 the imperial county of Hals near Passau fell to his sons as an inheritance. Then there were Grafenwöhr (1361), Grafenau (1375) and even the city of Crailsheim (1388), which was sold to the Burgraves of Nuremberg in 1399 . Then another decline of the landgraviate began, Johann III. († 1458) finally lost Pleystein, Grafenwoehr, Reichenstein, Schönsee, Parkstein and Weiden, the reign of Neuhaus and parts of the county of Hals through several feuds. In spite of this, Leuchtenberg counts repeatedly obtained important offices: Leuchtenbergers were ambassadors, repeatedly governors in Amberg, administrators in Lower Bavaria and chief marshal of the Passau monastery .
Between Wittelsbachers and Luxemburgers
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Rudolf's sons Rudolf II (1329–1353) and Ruprecht I (1329–1390) and their nephew Ruprecht II (1329–1398) initially ruled together. In 1338, however, they divided the Palatinate territory among themselves, with the greater part of the Upper Palatinate going to Rudolf and the greater part of the Rhine Palatinate to the two Ruprechte. The two brothers took turns leading the Palatine course vote. At that time the Wittelsbachers were in conflict with the Luxemburgers , who had also been kings of Bohemia since 1310. In 1346, Charles IV of Luxembourg was raised to the rank of anti -king against Emperor Ludwig IV and, after his death, was generally able to assert himself the following year. The anti-king Günther von Schwarzburg , supported by the Wittelsbachers, was not successful in 1349.
1349 was also the year in which the Great Plague reached the Upper Palatinate. While some areas (such as Prague, Milan and Krakow) were almost spared the epidemic, there were numerous victims in the Upper Palatinate. Plague graves are often found here during construction work and about half of the medieval villages were abandoned before the 16th century. In addition, there was a rural exodus, as there was a great demand for craftsmen and workers in the cities. The Upper Palatinate therefore had to face the Hussite storm that began in the 15th century in a significantly weakened manner. When the water power of the rivers was used in the course of the 13th century to drive bellows and heavy hammers for the early ironworks, this region began to rise to become a European iron center (see Mining in the Upper Palatinate ). From Amberg and Sulzbach, semi-finished products, "semi-finished products", went by axis to Nuremberg and by ship to the Regensburg transshipment point. The “Great Hammer Association” of 1387 was signed by 68 hammer masters who joined together to form a cartel-like association and thus created the contractual basis for this up-and-coming trade. Upper Palatinate iron was the raw material basis for the many iron-processing trades from tinsmiths to plumber , from nail smiths to tool fitters. The heyday lasted until the outbreak of the Thirty Years War . At that time the region was considered to be one of the best and most lucrative principalities in Europe. On the other hand, the silver and lead mining around Wölsendorf , which has been documented from the 15th century, was less extensive . The smelting also took place outside the immediate area. Gold was mined in the Upper Palatinate Forest from the early 14th century, but the Celts probably washed the precious metal out of the sand and gravel of the streams and rivers before the turn of the century. In the Upper Palatinate Forest gold deposits can be found in the vicinity of Neualbenreuth and between Vohenstrauss and Rötz ; as well as at the foot of the stone forest south of Erbendorf . The most important mines were the Fürstenzeche near Buchgütl (Neualbenreuth) and at Gütting / Unterlangau (Oberviechtach). Most gold panning and mines were closed in the 17th and 18th centuries because of the cheaper imports from America and Africa, but the last mining attempts were made in 1930 near Neualbenreuth.
Charles IV, also King of Bohemia since 1347, succeeded in winning the Count Palatine Rudolf II on his side in 1349 by marrying his daughter Anna , whose maternal great-great-uncle was the Bohemian King Henry of Carinthia . Anna's morning gift was not made in cash, but the Palatinate towns of Neidstein , Velden , the iron ore mining area around Auerbach and Plech , Hartenstein pledged to Karl. Thus, Karl came into possession of Upper Palatinate areas for the first time and thus came closer to his goal of connecting his Bohemian countries with safe roads with the cities of Nuremberg and Frankfurt, which are important for imperial politics, but also with the lucrative European trade network.
Since Anna died before her father in 1353, Karl could not secure the territories he had won through inheritance law. Both Rudolf II and Ruprecht I were, however, heavily indebted to Charles IV, and Karl now vigorously collected these loans. Therefore, on October 29, 1353, Ruprecht I ceded Hirschau , Neustadt an der Waldnaab , Störnstein , Sulzbach-Rosenberg , Hilpoltstein , Lauf , Eschenbach and Hersbruck to the Bohemian King, and so it was possible for him to create a coherent property. The economic strength of Bohemia then made it possible for Karl to acquire extensive land from the Upper Palatinate landed gentry, who had been hit by the plague, in particular Pegnitz , Velden , Hohenfels , Schönsee , Tännesberg , Waldthurn , Pleystein , Rothenstadt , Bärnau , Wernberg and Auerbach gradually came into Bohemian hands. The previously pledged areas, namely willow, raft and park stone, were also completely transferred to Bohemian ownership. On the occasion of his imperial coronation in Rome, the so - called New Bohemian area between Nuremberg and the Bohemian Forest was placed under the Bohemian crown in a letter of majesty from Charles IV on April 5, 1355. Karl created a modern-looking administration for New Bohemia, which was directly subordinate to the Bohemian king. At the head of the royal officials introduced for the first time was a governor based in Sulzbach . In return, Count Palatine Ruprecht I was able to acquire the right to vote to elect the Roman King , the Kurrecht , through the Golden Bull of the Palatinate in 1356 (hence the name Kurpfalz) and expand the Rhenish property, which is closer to Heidelberg . For Germany as a whole, the Golden Bull laid down a previously existing regulation on imperial administration by the secular electors: the electors of Saxony shared the imperial vicariate with the Rhineland Count Palatine . Thereafter, the Elector Palatinate was imperial vicar for the areas under Frankish law and the Elector of Saxony for the areas under Saxon law. The imperial vicars possessed all imperial rights from the death of the old ruler to the election of a new successor , in addition to the granting of pledge loans and the sale of imperial property . On October 1, 1386, Elector Ruprecht I founded the University of Heidelberg named after him ; It still exists today, making it the oldest university in what is now Germany; from then until 1628 it was the state university for the Upper Palatinate.
From 1373 on, Charles IV changed his power policy and sought access to the Baltic Sea. In exchange for the Mark Brandenburg of Wittelsbach , he ceded the greater part of New Bohemia with the capital Sulzbach, Hirschau, Hersbruck and Floß to the former Margrave of Brandenburg Otto V , who united it with Bavaria-Landshut in the Treaty of Fürstenwalde . For the first time since the division of 1329, the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbach ruled again in Upper Palatinate areas. The rest of New Bohemia with the new capital Auerbach remained with Karl's successor Wenzel for almost three decades , but it was only a chain of castles and towns that stretched from Bärnau to Erlangen. After the death of his tolerant uncle, Ruprecht II succeeded him as Count Palatine of the entire state and in 1394, with the consent of King Wenceslaus, declared himself elector. In 1391 Ruprecht expelled Jews and heretics from the Palatinate, confiscated all of their property and bequeathed them to the University of Heidelberg. Since pogroms took place almost simultaneously in the Bohemian, Bavarian and Franconian territories, and even in France , the only option left for the Jews was to flee either to Regensburg or even to far-away Poland-Lithuania , where the independent Yiddish language developed in the following centuries could. Since heretical groups lived in the Upper Palatinate long before the Reformation, this expulsion also affected the Waldensians , whose presence in the diocese of Regensburg has been documented since the 13th century. The inquisitors involved were Martin von Prag and Petrus Zwicker . In 1395 Rupprecht II issued the so-called Rupertine Constitution , which was supposed to secure the cohesion of the parts of the Palatinate. Essentially, it consisted of inheritance regulation for the Palatinate Wittelsbachers, but there were also constitutional elements, such as the establishment of a 20-member council, including 7 councils from the Upper Palatinate, for the entire Electoral Palatinate.
When Wenzel was deposed by the German electors in 1400, the new king, Ruprecht III. , since 1398 elector of the Palatinate, Auerbach and completely smashed New Bohemia. Since the material foundations of the German kingship were hardly in place, the new king set out on a journey to Italy in 1401–1402, which however failed. Ruprecht could not muster a large army, especially since Milan was an overpowering enemy under the Visconti , who had brought northern and central Italy under its control. The income of Gian Galeazzo Visconti , who had been made Duke of Milan by Wenceslaus for 100,000 florins in 1395, amounted to at least 1.2 million florins. The king could only raise a fraction of it. Ruprecht also failed to collect the money hoped for in Italy, which would have been necessary for a successful imperial policy, let alone achieve the coronation of the emperor. Since the hoped-for support from Florence was also minimal, he had to break off the operation after a defeat by a Milanese army off Brescia and a winter in Padua , during which his troops dispersed, and return to Germany in April 1402. After King Ruprecht's death in 1410, the Palatinate territory was divided between his four sons, with Ludwig III. Amberg and Heidelberg received. As the eldest son, he also received the voting vote. Johann , the second eldest son of Rupprecht III., Had been governor in the Upper Palatinate since 1404 and received the areas around Neumarkt and Neunburg vorm Wald . His son Christoph von Pfalz-Neumarkt, born in 1416, was named Christoph III in 1440/41 . King of Denmark, Sweden and Norway and ruled from Copenhagen from all of Northern Europe until his death in 1448 .
Hussite Wars
Jan Hus , also known as Johannes Huss , was a Christian theologian, preacher and reformer. He was temporarily rector of the Charles University in Prague . When he did not want to revoke his teaching during the Council of Constance , he was burned at the stake . The German King Sigismund had previously assured Hus of safe conduct (a salvus conductus for the outward and return journey and the time of stay) and promised him a letter of safe conduct . But Hus already set out beforehand to present his views before the council. In spite of his excommunication and the ban on him from the Church, he was warmly received everywhere on his way to Constance, including in the Upper Palatinate. Participating in his process were King Sigismund, Friedrich von Hohenzollern , Ludwig III as representatives of the secular powers . von der Pfalz and a Hungarian magnate. Because of his doctrine of the "Church as the invisible community of the predestined" he was sentenced to death by fire as a heretic . On behalf of the king, Elector Ludwig enforced the ruling, which was an imperial law. Jan Hus was burned together with his writings on the afternoon of July 6th, 1415 on the Brühl, between the city wall and the moat.
The situation in Bohemia then deteriorated noticeably, King Wenceslaus died shortly after the first Prague window lintel in 1419, and then Bohemia found itself in open revolt. The crusade bull of Pope Martin V in March 1420 turned the uprising into a regular war. Several crusade armies were defeated by the Hussites . From 1422 they invaded the Upper Palatinate and the adjacent Fichtelgebirge several times , the biggest incursions occurred in 1427 and 1428, others followed in 1433 and - for the last time - in 1434. The distress from the Hussites was great, many city and fortifications were built therefore reinforced. Also markets at that time were to build walls, a right that was originally only the permission cities was reserved. The construction of the fortifications almost ruined markets, towns and communities, as were the construction costs for the walls and towers. From old documents it can be seen that municipalities were exempted from tax liability and granted extensive privileges so that they could afford protection against the Hussites.
The Upper Palatinate was the scene of the famous Battle of Hiltersried on September 21, 1433 . Nobles, citizens and farmers from all over the Upper Palatinate faced a part of the Hussite army under the leadership of Johann von Pfalz-Neumarkt , and they succeeded in destroying the dreaded Hussite wagon castle and inflicting a crushing defeat on the Hussites. As a result, the invasions of the Hussites in the Upper Palatinate subsided, but this was less due to this military defeat than to internal rifts and a comparison of the empire with Bohemia.
The Landshut War of Succession
On April 17, 1474, Count Palatine Philipp von der Pfalz and Margarete von Bayern-Landshut (1456–1501), daughter of Duke Ludwig IX, married in Amberg . von Bayern-Landshut and his wife Princess Amalie of Saxony (Amberg wedding). More than 1,000 guests were present at the wedding, including 14 ruling princes. Large amounts of food were consumed, including 110,000 liters of wine and 10,000 chickens. When he married, Philipp received the Upper Palatinate as his dominion. After his adoptive father Friedrich I died in 1476, Philipp took over the electorate as well as the Palatinate . In 1499, Pfalz-Mosbach and Pfalz-Neumarkt fell back to the Electoral Palatinate. Thanks to his wife, Philipp had a good relationship with Margarete's brother, Duke Georg the Rich , and two of their children married in 1499. Georg, who had no male descendants, finally appointed his sister's son and at the same time his son-in-law, Count Palatine Ruprecht , to be the heir in his will, which was not corresponded to the Wittelsbach house contracts. So he drew the opposition of his cousin Duke Albrecht of Bavaria-Munich and King Maximilians .
The twins Georg and Ruprecht (November 1500 - August 1504), Ottheinrich (April 10, 1502 to February 12, 1559) and Philipp (November 12, 1503 to July 4, 1548) sprang from the marriage of the Count Palatine . Since Duke Georg could still not be sure that Elisabeth would keep her inheritance, he appointed Ruprecht as his governor in autumn 1503 and handed over the important castles of Landshut and Burghausen to him. Georg died on December 1st, 1503 and his will was promptly not recognized. Albrecht demanded his inheritance, but Ruprecht refused. Ruprecht had the Palatinate and Bohemia behind him, Albrecht the Swabian League and King Maximilian. On February 5th there was a session of the Imperial Chamber Court in Augsburg, in which King Maximilian declared imperial ban on Ruprecht and enfeoffed Albrecht with the Lower Bavarian Duchy. Ruprecht did not bow and so began the Landshut War of Succession . On June 13th the first major battle between the troops Albrechts and Ruprechts broke out in Landshut. Albrecht won the battle and Ruprecht had to retreat to the city, where he died of dysentery on August 20th . His two first sons Georg and Ruprecht died of the disease shortly before him. On August 9th, troops from the Palatinate took Kufstein and about 14 days later, after a fierce battle, Braunau . In the Upper Palatinate, Margrave Friedrich's troops conquered Freystadt and devastated the Waldsassen monastery under Abbot Georg I. Engel , but on August 8th they were defeated by a Palatinate army near Ebnath . The Nuremberg people conquered Lauf , Hersbruck and Altdorf near Nuremberg , which would then remain with the imperial city for the next 300 years.
After his victory at Landshut, Duke Albrecht besieged Neuburg an der Donau without success . A Bohemian army advanced through the Upper Palatinate, but Maximilian's army came to the rescue in good time, and on September 12, 1504, in the only major battle of the war, the Battle of Wenzenbach northeast of Regensburg, the Bohemians were able to pass through the united Bavarian-Austrian Armies are beaten. The future Duchess Elisabeth died three days after the battle. On behalf of their underage sons, the Palatine councils further led to war yet, and succeeded her commander Georg von Wisbeck , vohburg to conquer. Wisbeck besieged Munich in vain and then set fire to Neumarkt , Schärding , Pfarrkirchen , Vilsbiburg and Burghausen , which burned down completely. The latter was not an arson, but an accident. Around 300 places in the Electoral Palatinate were also destroyed. On September 10, 1504, Elector Philipp concluded an armistice for the Electoral Palatinate. However, the first peace negotiations on December 10th in Mittenwald failed. On January 23, 1505 Wisbeck was defeated by the Bavarian troops near Gangkofen , on February 9, an armistice came into force for Bavaria as well.
On July 30, 1505, the war ended with the Cologne arbitration ruling by the Roman-German King Maximilian at a Reichstag in Cologne . Duke Georg's two grandsons, Ottheinrich and Philipp , received the Young Palatinate , a fragmented area from the Upper Danube , via Hilpoltstein , Hemau , Burglengenfeld , Sulzbach, Schwandorf to the Parkstein-Weiden community office . The north, the later Duchy of Palatinate-Sulzbach , was made up of essential parts of the former New Bohemia, while the south was largely owned by Bavaria-Munich. The former Lower Bavarian Neuburg an der Donau was chosen as the capital of the new state, which lay in the far west on the upper Danube and was an old property of Bavaria-Ingolstadt . Since the two heirs were not yet of legal age, the "young Palatinate" ruled Palatine Count Friedrich II as guardian. The rest of the Landshut Duchy went to the Munich line of the Wittelsbachers, with the exception of Kufstein, Rattenberg and Kitzbühel, which Maximilian kept for his efforts. The imperial city of Nuremberg gained significant areas east of the city, including the offices of Lauf, Hersbruck and Altdorf. Count Palatine Ottheinrich had Neuburg an der Donau expanded into a residence in the following decades with enormous funds. By succession he became Elector Palatinate in 1556 and could have unified the Palatinate territories in the Upper Palatinate, but this was prevented by the Heidelberg Treaty of 1553.
reformation
After negotiations had initially taken place with the individual corporations of the prelates, the knighthood and the cities, a first general state parliament of the Upper Palatinate met on December 1, 1507 in the Amberg town hall, “so that its princely nobles and people, too , the prelates, knighthood, always and the whole furstenthom to use and, in turn, helped, in a being and standing can be placed ”. The estates demanded that they “should stick to their freedoms and their old usage and freedom” and that the prince should be on site in his territory. At this first Amberg state parliament, a larger and a smaller committee were formed. The former included the seven prelates of the Waldsassen, Kastl, Reichenbach, Michelfeld, Walderbach, Ensdorf and Speinshart monasteries, 15 aristocrats and one representative each from the cities of Amberg, Neumarkt, Weiden, Kemnath, Auerbach and Hirschau. The small committee, on the other hand, consisted only of the prelates of the monasteries Kastl and Michelfeld, five representatives of the nobility and one representative each from the cities of Amberg and Weiden. This list underlines the primacy that the city of Amberg has not only as a conference venue over the other municipalities. The most important instrument in the hands of the state parliament was the tax approval right, the exercise of which forced them to set up certain forms of organization, such as the financial administration based in Amberg. The outstanding organ of the landscape was the land marshal, its highest representative and representative. In 1538, for the first time, a land marshal can be identified as spokesman for the nobility, who acted as spokesman for the entire state parliament by 1556 at the latest.
Starting with the city of Weiden in 1522, Protestantism was able to gain a foothold in the Upper Palatinate. The Weiden clergyman Johann Weber supported Luther's ideas. After an investigation by the city council on the orders of the sovereign, it turned out that the citizens were completely behind the Lutheran doctrine, which was followed by a lengthy dispute with the church leadership in Regensburg. Several clergymen were transferred to Weiden, they all followed Luther's teachings. The electors were initially neutral towards the new religion.
During the Second Margrave War (1552–1555) triggered by Margrave Albrecht Alcibiades of Kulmbach , the margrave had previously plundered all of Germany. In 1554, the castles of Neustadt am Kulm were for about a year by troops from the imperial city of Nuremberg, from the monasteries of Bamberg and Würzburg and Palatinate were besieged under the leadership of the electoral district judge Hans Umseher von Waldeck, the residents were starved and the buildings were completely destroyed. The fortress commander von Heydenab handed over the fortress on the Rauhen Kulm on June 28, 1554. Then it was blown up as a punishment, the triple walls were razed and destroyed.
Elector Ottheinrich carried out the dissolution of the monasteries and the change of religion to Lutheranism in 1556 . In his ancestral duchy of Pfalz-Neuburg, this had already happened in 1542. In the period after 1560 the beginning of compulsory schooling in the Upper Palatinate, demonstrably happened in the Stiftland under the administrator Pfalzgraf Reichard , who was a younger brother of Friedrich III. was. The latter turned to Calvinism from 1563 , but its spread was initially limited by the Lutheran sympathies of Friedrich's son Ludwig , who became governor of the Upper Palatinate in Amberg in the same year, and the Upper Palatinate estates that had existed since around 1488 (only Pfalz-Neumarkt).
After Elector Friedrich III. wanted to help the reformed Calvinist creed to a breakthrough in the Upper Palatinate as well, the estates were involved in the subsequent religious-political disputes between the country and the prince. Although Friedrich III. was not ready to discuss questions of religion with the estates and an advance by the sovereign to implement the Calvinist creed was imminent, the estates hoped to be able to hold on to the Evangelical Lutheran creed. They therefore agreed to take over the country's debt of 500,000 guilders. For this purpose, the so-called Commissariat was created as its own financial authority. It was only under Ludwig's successors, the regent Johann Casimir and his son Friedrich IV. Calvinism was officially introduced in the Upper Palatinate and was able to prevail, especially in the upper class, while the people secretly remained Lutheran. In addition to the lack of acceptance of Calvinism, on the one hand a lack of local clergymen, on the other hand the severity of the new teaching, which was reflected, for example, in the removal of the pictures from the churches and the rejection of restaurants and card games.
During the Peasants' War there was an uprising in the Stiftland in May 1525 , after Abbot Nikolaus V. Seber fled to Eger on May 11, the monastery was stormed and looted by revolting peasants. Palatinate troops marched in shortly afterwards, because the Electoral Palatinate exercised bailiff law over the monastery, and the Elector reached an agreement with the rebels in the Treaty of Tirschenreuth of May 20th, whereupon the abbot, who had hoped for the intervention of the King of Bohemia , resigned. On September 21, 1526, the Imperial Court of Justice in Speyer approved this process in essence, above all the Palatinate protectorate was confirmed. This was a remarkable process, because in the rest of the empire the peasant unrest was brutally suppressed, including in the Rhine Palatinate. In 1537, Count Palatine Frederick II , the then Elector Palatinate governor of the Upper Palatinate, had the then Abbot Georg III. Capture Agmann because he wanted to bring the monastery under Bohemian control and temporarily occupied the monastery. Emperor Charles V then appointed secular administrators to manage the monastery, which was still directly under the Empire, first Johannes von Weeze and then his nephew Heinrich Rudolf von Weeze . The dominance of the Palatinate grew steadily in the years that followed. In 1569, the Waldsassen monastery became a Lutheran under the Lutheran Count Palatine and Administrator Reichard (a brother of Friedrich III.), And from 1571 it was only an Electoral Palatinate administration office . The other monasteries in the Upper Palatinate were already abolished in 1556 under Elector Ottheinrich , or became Lutheran at times under administrators.
After Elector Friedrich IV came to power, he tried to get his subjects, who had only become Lutherans a few decades ago, to accept Calvinism as a religion, which met with considerable resistance from the population. The Amberg government sent the chief bailiff Valentin Winsheim to Stiftland to implement the decisions and instructions of the elector. On the evening of February 24, 1592, the conflict between the citizens of Tirschenreuth and the Palatinate official Winsheim came to a head to such an extent that he threatened to set fire to the place if they did not obey his orders. Valentin Winsheim was eventually beaten to death by an angry mob in the market square with rifles, halberds and spears.
The consequences of this murder were severe for the city. First of all, the mayors and councilors were dismissed, the city was deprived of all rights and an investigative commission was set up to investigate the course of events. The main perpetrators fled to neighboring Bohemia shortly after the crime. The investigations were suspended for two years before a commission was reinstated in 1594. After interrogating more than a hundred witnesses, the results were sent to the government in Heidelberg, which forwarded them to several universities for assessment. However, the government did not wait for the assessments from the universities, but decided itself on the punishments of the guilty. After two years of activity, three main perpetrators were executed on September 22, 1596 , two other men suffered the same fate in November of the same year. Originally, even more people were supposed to be executed, but it was decided to show mercy and sentence them to permanent expulsion from the country and confiscation of half their property or heavy fines. The city itself had to atone with the withdrawal of its most important freedoms and the payment of a heavy fine, and it was only regained its city rights during the Thirty Years' War.
In 1606, an Upper Palatinate land law was introduced for the electoral territories , which was essentially based on the Palatinate land law of 1582. This code also survived the Counter-Reformation and the war and was renewed in 1657/59 by the Bavarian Elector Ferdinand Maria .
Witch trials Upper Palatinate
The witch hunt is commonly associated with the Middle Ages. But that was only partially the case. In the 15th century there were several trials against women for sorcery in Regensburg, usually they were expelled from the city in the event of a conviction. Immediately after the publication of the book De praestigiis daemonum by the critic of the witch hunt Johann Weyer (1515 / 16–1588) in 1563, Elector Friedrich III. continued the ordeal and application of the death penalty to alleged witches . There was not a single documented case of a witch burning among the Palatinate electors in the Upper Palatinate, nor in the Stiftland. But the heated religious climate certainly had consequences, so the reformers Martin Luther and Johannes Calvin openly called for the killing of witches, referring to corresponding passages from the Bible. A stronghold of the witch craze was the Catholic Hochstift Eichstätt , where from 1582 to 1723 at least 241 people, including 211 women (88%) and 30 men (12%), were charged and arrested on suspicion of so-called witchcraft. 222 people (195 women, 27 men) of them were verifiably sentenced to death in a witch trial and executed. These conditions rubbed off in the southern Upper Palatinate, more precisely in the newly re-Catholicized Pfalz-Neuburg, so in 1617 a woman was put to the stake in Laaber , in Hemau even five women, three of them alive. By the middle of the 17th century, 50 people in Reichertshofen are said to have fallen victim to the madness. In 1655 there is another documented case of a witch burning in Amberg, now under Bavarian rule. Only in the 18th century did the madness come to a standstill in all of Bavaria.
Thirty Years' War
In 1595 Christian von Anhalt-Bernburg became governor of the Upper Palatinate, a ruling imperial prince, which alone speaks for the importance of the country in that epoch. He was also an important advisor to Elector Frederick V, head of the Protestant Union, and had arranged his English marriage to Elisabeth Stuart . This marriage, which was not befitting Elisabeth, who came from the royal family, turned out to be fatal when in 1619 Friedrich was elected king by the rebellious Bohemian estates and accepted the crown at the advice of Elisabeth and Christian. The last state parliaments of the Upper Palatinate also fall during the time of Christian von Anhalt's governorship. Elector Friedrich V appeared in person at the Amberg state parliament in 1615. After Friedrich had declared himself ready to accept the Bohemian crown, the Upper Palatinate landscape showed itself ready to support this "Bohemian adventure". When there was no military support from England, Christian led the clearly outnumbered Bohemian-Palatinate troops into the battle of the White Mountain on November 8, 1620 , he was injured and finally defeated. The Bohemian estates broke up, the Palatine fled and the imperial army occupied Prague the following day without a fight. Because of his brief reign in Bohemia, Frederick V was also nicknamed the Winter King .
With the defeat of Frederick V, the electoral Palatinate rule over large parts of what is today Upper Palatinate ended. In view of the danger of war, the landscape gathered in 1621 without having been convened, which is why the Amberg government denied its right of assembly. And in autumn 1621 Peter Ernst von Mansfeld had to give up the now untenable Upper Palatinate, and in October the country was occupied by Bavarian troops. Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria was initially appointed as the imperial commissioner. According to ancillary agreements in the Treaty of Munich from 1619, which was concluded between Maximilian and Emperor Ferdinand II , the Principality of the Upper Palatinate together with the Palatinate electoral dignity officially returned to the Bavarian State Association in 1628; the official name of the new province was the Amberg Rent Office , which was to exist as an administrative unit until 1802. When the Upper Palatinate passed to Kurbayern and the sovereignty changed to Maximilian, the Upper Palatinate constitution was dissolved and the estates were last convened in 1626. Only the privileges of the nobility were confirmed in 1629. The duchies of Palatinate-Neuburg and Palatinate-Sulzbach remained untouched. Reformed Christians expelled from the Upper Palatinate in the course of recatholicization settled in the imperial city of Nuremberg, where Reformed Christians from the Netherlands already lived, or they moved to Brandenburg-Bayreuth or even Hesse. About a third of the landed gentry, the Reformed and Lutheran-minded administrative officials and teachers, as well as the pastors, preferred emigration to conversion . The fact that the intellectual elite left the country during this expulsion proves the further fate of Erhard Weigel , who was born in Weiden . As in most of the other affected territories, the Jesuits were the agents of recatholicization. The pattern was similar to that in the Habsburg territories, the resistance was broken by billeting soldiers (in the idiom obtained to make someone Catholic ). On January 29, 1630, in the course of the re-Catholicization of the Upper Palatinate, the Bavarian elector had 11,183 “non-Catholic” books burned at the gates of the city of Amberg , which his officials had confiscated during systematic house searches throughout the principality . These were mainly religious “practical literature” that was widespread in Protestant households, such as the prayer book by Johann Habermann , the psalter by Ambrosius Lobwasser , gospels , behavioral guides, e.g. B. Jesus Sirach , as well as Luther and Hus biographies. The cremation, staged propagandistically as a criminal court, was accompanied by music by Jesuit students. The process of recatholicization was largely ended by 1675.
This led to a turning point in Upper Palatinate history, because the incorporation into the Bavarian state led to the relocation of the center of power from Amberg to Munich and the main trade routes away from Nuremberg, Amberg, Pilsen and Prague. In particular, the export of food was suppressed. Vienna and Munich prospered, while Prague and Amberg fell behind. The ubiquitous gardens were sacrificed for national defense. This ended the independent historical development of the Upper Palatinate. Maximilian saw the Upper Palatinate as a conquered land; accordingly, his interest in promoting the region was low. Maximilian and his new subjects from Upper Palatinate eyed each other with suspicion.
The Thirty Years' War hit the Upper Palatinate particularly hard. Due to its geographical location and its close proximity to Bohemia, the Upper Palatinate was always a transit area for imperial and Swedish troops, who ruthlessly plundered and pillaged. Especially after the conquest of Regensburg by the Swedes and during the time of the Swedish occupation of the city from November 1633 to July 1634 and then again from 1646 to 1650, many Upper Palatinate cities were occupied by Swedish garrisons. Demands by the Bavarian Elector Maximilian to his military commanders to keep regiment better and to counter attacks by soldiers on the population were unsuccessful. After this long war, the country was deprived of its structures and development opportunities, while agriculture quickly recovered, handicrafts, trade and education system dawned for decades. Mining as a source of income for 20-25% of the population came to a complete standstill. War, hunger and the plague had decimated the population. From old tax books it can be seen that everything is desolate because the subjects died of the plague, were corrupted by the war people or moved away . The population of Amberg, for example, decreased from 4,910 inhabitants in 1630 to 3,274 inhabitants in 1648. The total cost of the war for the Upper Palatinate is estimated between 1.2 and 10.6 million guilders.
Baroque period
A special case was the Landgraviate of Leuchtenberg , which, in contrast to the rest of the Upper Palatinate, remained Catholic, but whose lords died out in the male line in 1646. The landgraviate was also ravaged by the ravages of the war, as the mercenaries paid little attention to the religion of the inhabitants of the territories they had just occupied. 1646 inherited Albrecht VI. , a brother of Duke Maximilian, who was married to an aunt of the last Leuchtenberger, owned the property. However, he did not call himself a Landgrave, but rather the Duke of Leuchtenberg. As early as 1650, the area was exchanged to his nephew Maximilian Philipp Hieronymus and, after his death in 1705, to the Bavarian elector. The respective Bavarian ruler then led, among other things, the title of Landgrave von Leuchtenberg.
The attempt at reconciliation between Catholics and Protestants was initiated by Duke Christian August von Pfalz-Sulzbach . While he himself converted to Catholicism in 1656, he gained independence from his relatives in Neuburg. But the prince had not forgotten his former co-religionists: under his reign, the rule that subjects should have the denomination of their regent was abolished and the Simultaneum was introduced. So you could freely choose whether you were Catholic or Protestant, but had to come to terms with sharing the local church with the other religious community. A regulation that caused some trouble in the following centuries, but was cost-saving and was practiced in many communities until after 1900. In 1685 the Catholic Duke of Palatinate-Neuburg, who also ruled a complex of areas around Burglengenfeld, Schwandorf, Regenstauf and Parsberg, inherited the Electoral Palatinate, which had been reformed up until then. Of course, this did not go unchallenged, of all people, the Catholic King of France raised inheritance claims for his sister-in-law Liselotte von der Pfalz , which triggered the extremely brutal War of the Palatinate Succession (1688–1697), which was ended by the Peace of Rijswijk and the restitution of the Palatinate principalities provided. Since then, after more than 50 years, there has been a small connection between the Electoral and Upper Palatinate. This time the Upper Palatinate was completely spared from the war itself.
The French expression pommes de terre has been adopted into German as “Erdäpfel”, and this is the name under which the potato was also introduced in the Upper Palatinate. In 1597, Heidelberger had grown potatoes in the medical garden of the university on the edge of a vineyard and Ph. St. Sprenger described this in the Horti medici catalogus . In 1621 Johannes Oberndorffer drew and described a potato plant with an open flower that grew in a medicinal garden in Regensburg. During and after the Thirty Years War, famines broke out again and again, which finally helped the new fruit to break through. The landlords were rather skeptical of this innovation because it was not burdened with taxes. In 1647 in Pilgramsreuth near Rehau, for example, a ban was imposed on court records in which the local farmers had to commit themselves to "abolish the excess of such newly crept potatoes in the whole parish". But without success, because in 1674 in Lochau, Pullenreuth and Pilgramsreuth potatoes were also grown in the northern Steinwald. 1690 reports of a field extension in Wiesau, Speinshart and Pullenreuth near Kemnath.
The religious situation remained very tense after the Thirty Years' War. In 1684 Ferdinand August, Prince Count von Störnstein from the Bohemian House of Lobkowitz , expelled the Jews from Neustadt ad Waldnaab. Four families became the ancestors of the Jewish community in Floß . In 1687, the government of Pfalz-Sulzbach granted permission to build four houses on what would later become the Judenberg. Soon more residential buildings were built there, all of which were owned by Jews. Up until the middle of the 19th century no Jews lived in the center of Floß, the Floßbach divided the place into a Christian and a Jewish area, and the Jewish part was also its own political commune, which still existed in the 19th century. Most of the Jews in Raft lived from the wool trade and had to pay protection money every year. The Jewish community laid out its own cemetery as early as 1692 . A wooden synagogue was built in 1721, but a major fire on April 26, 1813 destroyed the Judenberg and the synagogue. A new synagogue was built between 1815 and 1817 and a simultaneous school building in 1814. The neighboring towns of Neustadt an der Waldnaab, Weiden in the Upper Palatinate and temporarily also the towns of Waldsassen and Tirschenreuth belonged to the rabbinical district at that time. There is a separate article on Judaism in Regensburg .
After Elector Johann Wilhelm from the Wittelsbach branch Palatinate-Neuburg had been enfeoffed briefly with the Upper Palatinate from 1708 to 1714 , Karl Theodor, who was originally only Duke of Sulzbach , inherited the Electorate of Palatinate with all neighboring countries in 1742. But the ruler was not interested in his Upper Palatinate property; he ruled Mannheim and Düsseldorf with great splendor. In 1777 the Elector of the Palatinate, u. a. also Duke of Pfalz-Sulzbach and Duke of Pfalz-Neuburg, after the extinction of the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbacher the Electorate of Bavaria. With this, all essential parts of today's Upper Palatinate ( Upper Palatinate , Palatinate-Neuburg, Palatinate-Sulzbach and the Landgraviate of Leuchtenberg) with the exception of Regensburg were united in the new dual electorate of Electoral Palatinate-Bavaria . Karl-Theodor's rule over Bavaria was, however, under a bad star. Shortly thereafter, the Bavarian War of Succession broke out, which was largely bloodless, but ended in the Peace of Teschen in 1779 with the cession of the Innviertel to Austria. Emperor Joseph II had previously made claims on Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate. Also because of the failed attempt by Karl Theodor to surrender Bavaria to the Habsburgs in exchange with the Austrian Netherlands in 1785 due to the resistance of Prussia and the prince union he founded . If the exchange attempt had been successful, Bavaria would have lost its statehood. As a result, the Sulzbach government was dissolved in 1791 and subordinated to the Amberger. In 1799, the Principality of the Upper Palatinate, the Duchy of Palatinate-Sulzbach and the Landgraviate of Leuchtenberg were combined to form the Province of Upper Palatinate , and the government and court chamber in Amberg were converted into a regional directorate (General Commissioner). In 1803 other smaller areas of the Upper Palatinate were incorporated on the basis of the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss . In 1806, the princes of Neustadt- Störnstein became part of the new Kingdom of Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate.
Creation of today's district
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With the Peace Treaty of Pressburg of December 1805, Napoleonic France forced the Austrian and German Emperors Franz II to renounce all claims against the future Kingdom of Bavaria and to respect its sovereignty . With this, all theoretical and genuine feudal claims of the King of Bohemia against numerous villages, markets and cities in the Upper Palatinate fell and the previous state border with Bohemia was transformed into the state border that still exists today . Their exact course had to be clarified through lengthy negotiations that dragged on until 1862 (Bavarian-Austrian State Treaty). In the years 1806 to 1808 the new kingdom was divided into 15 (state) districts, whose names were based on rivers, following the French model. When the new circles were formed, no consideration was given to historical contexts. The rain district , which encompasses the southern Upper Palatinate and parts of Lower Bavaria , initially consisted of 13 regional courts and (since 1809) the city of Straubing, which is directly in the district. In 1810 it was enlarged considerably, including by the Principality of Regensburg . Thereafter Regensburg became the seat of the General District Commissioner. The Regenkreis also gave areas to the Unterdonaukreis . The Naabkreis was formed from the 14 regional courts of the central and northern Upper Palatinate . The capital was the now district city of Amberg. The area of the Palatinate-Neuburg, which continued to exist as an administrative unit until 1808, was divided into the two aforementioned districts and the Altmühlkreis . When the districts were reorganized in 1810, the Naab district was dissolved. The northern district courts came to the Mainkreis , the southern to the Regenkreis. Amberg lost its function as the seat of government in Upper Palatinate after more than 450 years.
During the territorial reform initiated by King Ludwig I on November 29, 1837, in which one referred to the historically developed country names and landscape contexts, the regional courts of the Naabkreis (Ebnath, Eschenbach, Kemnath, which had previously belonged to the Obermainkreis) were merged . Neustadt ad Waldnaab, Tirschenreuth, Waldsassen) with the majority of the rain district renamed the district of Upper Palatinate and Regensburg . The district council of 1828, the forerunner of today's district assembly , was made up of elected and appointed notables and manufacturers , a non-representative body with the task of acting as an advisory and controlling body alongside the district government at the district level . It had no direct administrative tasks itself and cannot yet be described as a local self-government institution. It was not until the Landraths Act of 1852 that the prerequisites were created for the Landrath to develop into a self-governing body. The competences of these bodies were and are limited, the core tasks of the government always remained in Munich hands . In the Walhalla memorial in Donaustauf , originally built at the instigation of the Bavarian King Ludwig I, important personalities “of the German tongue” have been honored with marble busts and memorial plaques since 1842 . It is named after Valhalla , the hall of the fallen in Norse mythology . The architect was Leo von Klenze . The foundation stone for the “Temple of Fame” was laid on October 18, 1830, the 17th anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig . Klenze built the facility between 1831 and 1842. The Walhalla was Ludwig's most expensive project with construction costs of four million guilders. The Valhalla was given the shape of a marble Greek temple in the style of a Doric peripterus based on the model of the Parthenon in Athens . The roof is supported by an iron structure that was modern for the time. The length of the classical temple building is 66.7 meters, the width 31.6 meters, the height 20 meters. Inside, the Walhalla is 48.5 meters long, 14 meters wide and 15.5 meters high.
In 1834 Ludwig I passed the law concerning the construction of a canal to connect the Danube with the Main and in 1835 an association was founded to ensure the financing of the canal project. On July 1, 1836, the work, which was estimated to take six years, began and by the end of 1839 the earthworks were almost complete, only the larger dams had to be worked on for a long time. However, from 1839 on, problems arose again and again - minor dam breaks had to be repaired. By the end of 1842, the canal had "advanced so far in most places that it appeared suitable for shipping". This canal, the Ludwig-Danube-Main Canal , crossed the extreme southwest of the Upper Palatinate from Riedenburg , Dietfurt , Beilngries , Berching , Sengenthal , Neumarkt to Berg bei Neumarkt and turned from there via Altdorf to Nuremberg. The total length was 172.4 kilometers. Initially 3,000 and later 9,000 workers were employed on the project. The capital of the stock corporation, in which the Kingdom of Bavaria held 25%, amounted to 10 million guilders . In August 1845, the canal "in all its facilities and accessories ... was considered complete" and the Kelheim – Nuremberg route was opened. After initial losses, profits could be reported from 1850 to 1863, even if they were relatively small at around 50,000 guilders per year. After that, you couldn't get out of the red, because the train proved to be the much faster, cheaper and more flexible means of transport of the future.
The serfdom was in the Upper Palatinate traditionally not present, with the promulgation of the first Bavarian Constitution of 1808 all citizens were equal before the law and therefore the servitude without compensation and formally repealed, in whole Bavaria 2.0% of the population of which is estimated affected. The liberation of the peasants in 1848 brought about the abolition of the patrimonial jurisdiction and the replacement of the labor and duties on the land to the landlord, but compensation payments had to be made for decades. The farmers became full owners of their farms. The relationship between farmers and aristocratic landowners remained tense until the end of the monarchy, as exemplified by the Holzschlacht von Fuchsmühl in 1894.
The last act of war in the Upper Palatinate was the Battle of Regensburg in 1809, after which the region was spared from military events for over 100 years. At the same time, after the Congress of Vienna in 1814/15, all borders of the Upper Palatinate (with the exception of Bohemia) were abolished or economically insignificant. This finally enabled the region to recover. The proximity to Franconia, the low wages, the availability of raw materials (kaolin, iron ore, lignite) and the liberal Bavarian economic policy led to the first wave of industrialization, in stark contrast to southern Bavaria, which is still heavily influenced by agriculture. Examples are the Tirschenreuth porcelain factory (founded in 1838), the Maxhütte (Sulzbach-Rosenberg) (1851), the Nachtmann company (founded in Waldmünchen in 1834) and the Reinhausen machine factory (1868). At the same time, the Upper Palatinate was developed in terms of rail technology by the Bayerische Ostbahn , founded in 1856 , which expanded its route network at breakneck speed from Regensburg (1859) to Cham (1861) and Mitterteich (1864). The company was nationalized in 1875, but in that year it already had 900 km of track kilometers.
Also in the 19th century the population of some municipalities multiplied, so in 1800 Amberg lived 5763 people, in 1910 there were already 25,242 citizens. Several waves of emigration counteracted the population growth , but they could never compensate for the natural population growth. The triggers were several famines in the years before 1848, relaxed emigration regulations and medical advances. In the 1940s and 50s of the 19th century, the number of emigrants rose from 200 to up to 1,400 people annually. Another wave of emigration followed after 1880, the main destination was the USA , then until 1914 internal migration within the German Reich and emigration to Austria-Hungary predominated . These last two waves were essentially a form of individual labor migration , the gender ratio being almost even.
20th century
The Wittelsbach monarchy was deposed as part of the November Revolution. As a result, on November 8, 1918, Kurt Eisner , writer and journalist, founding member of the USPD, proclaimed a people or free state in Bavaria, the Free People's State of Bavaria. As it quickly turned out, this designation was a mere empty phrase, Bavaria lost the reservation rights from the empire in 1919 and was put on an equal footing with the other countries. The draconian tax increases of the young republic, such as the Reichsnotopfer , the hyperinflation and the chaotic change of government led to a negative attitude of Bavaria including the Upper Palatinate towards the imperial government. The political spectrum in the Weimar Republic was completely different in Bavaria than in the rest of the empire. Parties like the liberal DDP , the national liberal DVP , the Catholic Center and the national conservative DNVP were marginalized or inactive in Bavaria. Instead, the Bavarian People's Party , the center's sister party and the immediate predecessor of today's CSU, dominated . Between 1919 and 1932 she achieved election results between 43.6% and 56.9% in the Reichstag elections in the constituency of Lower Bavaria / Upper Palatinate. The SPD fought for second place with the liberal-conservative Bavarian Farmers' Union , which achieved its top result in 1928 with 24.7% and slipped to just under 10% in 1932. The NSDAP reached in the two Reichstag elections in 1932 only 20.4% and 18.5% in Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate. The electorate in the Upper Palatinate was thus consistently conservative-clerical, Bavarian-patriotic and social-liberal. Right-wing extremists, German national groups had no chance here. The turning point only came with the seizure of power in 1933, the last halfway democratic election in March brought the Nazis 39.2% in Eastern Bavaria, the signs of terror and dictatorship were already unmistakable for the voters, for example through the Reichstag fire and the Reichstag fire ordinance in February. On April 1, 1932, the administrative districts of Lower Bavaria and Upper Palatinate and Regensburg were merged to form the administrative district of Lower Bavaria and Upper Palatinate with the seat of the government in Regensburg. The Gau Bayerische Ostmark , created by the National Socialists on the initiative of Hans Schemm in 1933, also included Upper Franconia in addition to Lower Bavaria and Upper Palatinate . This ahistorical structure, which extended over three fundamentally different parts of the country, was actually only a party organization of the NSDAP, but was in fact the actual power center of the region from 1933 to 1945. Bayreuth was the capital of the district . The Bavarian Ostmarkstrasse from Upper Franconia to Passau was built as the main connecting axis of this Gau . In 1939 the Gau and the administrative district of Niederbayern-Oberpfalz were expanded to include areas that belonged to Czechoslovakia until the Munich Agreement in 1938 , namely the districts of Bergreichenstein , Markt Eisenstein and Prachatitz , which were separated again in 1945. In 1942 the Gau was named "Gau Bayreuth". The blackest moment in Upper Palatinate history began with the founding of the Flossenbürg concentration camp in 1938; at least 30,000 people died here and in the satellite camps scattered across northern Bavaria and Bohemia by 1945.
From 1943 Regensburg was bombed more than 10 times by the Allies , but the war damage was limited to the outskirts, industrial and railway facilities. In this way, Regensburg was able to save most of its valuable historical building stock to the present. With the arrival of the American troops in the spring of 1945, most of the Upper Palatinate cities came under fire. Neumarkt was hit for the first time on February 23rd, Weiden and Grafenwöhr were bombed on April 5th, then massively Grafenwöhr on the 8th, Amberg on the 9th, Amberg again on the 11th and above all Neumarkt and Weiden again on the 16th. On April 17th, Schwandorf was completely destroyed, there are said to have been 1250 fatalities. After the attack on Cham on April 18, the bombing was largely stopped and the American invasion began. On April 19, the Grafenwöhr barracks were conquered, then on the 22nd the largest cities in the north, Amberg and Weiden, these largely without a fight, while in Neumarkt there was fierce fighting, in the end the ruins were released for looting. On April 23, the Flossenbürg concentration camp was redeemed and the Schwandorf ruins were occupied on the same day. On the 25th the Americans reached Donaustauf, on the 26th Furth im Wald and on April 27th Regensburg was surrendered without a fight. Except for a few pockets of resistance from the SS and Wehrmacht in the east of the Tirschenreuth district, which did not give up until May 3rd, the Second World War was over for the Upper Palatinate. US troops have been stationed in the Upper Palatinate since 1945, the Grafenwöhr military training area covers an area of 226 km². Live ammunition is used on the area, one of the largest military training areas in Europe . A little further to the south is the Hohenfels military training area with an area of 160 km².
Ordinarily, the population shrinks during a war, due to the fallen, the civilian casualties and the decline in the birth rate. But World War II and its aftermath were the exception to the rule here. While 694,742 registered residents were still living in the Upper Palatinate on May 17, 1939, there were an astonishing 906,822 people on September 13, 1950, an increase of 30%. Already in the last months of the war a stream of refugees had reached the Upper Palatinate, mainly from Silesia , East Prussia , Bohemia and Moravia . The people fled from the advancing Red Army , which the Nazi regime viewed as the main enemy and which had been slandered as much as possible. Shortly after the end of the war, a wild expulsion of Germans from the newly established Czechoslovakia began . The final landslide then occurred in the Potsdam Agreement , and the Eastern European states were able to expel the Germans from their old and newly acquired territories. In the years that followed, millions of people streamed through the Upper Palatinate, largely destitute and, above all, homeless. In 1946 alone, 1.2 million people were admitted to the transit camps in Wiesau and Furth im Wald. Most of the displaced could not stay in the Upper Palatinate, living space was scarce and the employment situation was rather poor. But a population growth of 30 to 50% in cities with industry and commerce was not uncommon. In the countryside, the influx was significantly lower, the refugees and displaced persons left the Upper Palatinate and moved to western German metropolitan areas.
With the Bavarian Constitution of 1946 , the administrative districts (former districts) were restored to the form before 1932/33. The addition and Regensburg for the Upper Palatinate were omitted. However, the separation was not fully completed until 1956 when the government of Lower Bavaria moved from Regensburg to Landshut. Even after the separation of the two administrative districts, there are still institutions whose responsibilities extend over the territory of both administrative districts, such as the Regensburg Administrative Court , the Lower Bavaria-Upper Palatinate Chamber of Crafts , the subsidiaries of DB Regio AG and Regionalbus Ostbayern , the Ostbayern regional studio of Bavarian Broadcasting and the East Bavaria Tourism Association . With the influx of refugees after the First World War, a large number of Protestant believers came to Upper Palatinate, which in 1951 led to the establishment of the Regensburg church district , which has been headed by its own regional bishop since then . Similar to the Catholic diocese, its area does not exactly coincide with that of the administrative districts, but includes all of Lower Bavaria, the north of Upper Bavaria and most of the Upper Palatinate, although Auerbach, Postbauer-Heng, Waldershof, Neusorg, Pechbrunn, Ebnath and Brand in the are missing Upper Palatinate while, for example, the Upper Franconian Speicherersdorf and the Middle Franconian Allersberg belong to the Regensburg church district.
When people talked about the Upper Palatinate after 1945, the term “poor house in Bavaria” was often used and sometimes even argued with the allegedly so bad soil and the consequences of the Thirty Years' War. That went and goes wildly astray. It was the forty years from the beginning of the First World War to the beginning of the economic miracle that shook the Upper Palatinate economically and spiritually. In 1948 the currency reform followed in the western zones . Anyone who illegally hoarded goods until the changeover was a winner. The savers and the unemployed were the losers. Owners of tangible assets (businesses, real estate and goods) were given preference. The thriving Upper Palatinate was expropriated here. For property owners, the 1952 Load Equalization Act was the next blow. The amount of this tax was calculated based on the amount of the property as of June 21, 1948. The levy amounted to 50% of the calculated asset and could be paid into the compensation fund in up to 120 quarterly installments, spread over 30 years. Since the destruction in the Upper Palatinate was only minor, and the beneficiaries were displaced persons and bomb victims, the costs were higher than the benefits. For the many refugees and displaced persons, the equalization of burdens was of course the silver lining.
The minor damage caused by the war also had another side effect. The demand for consumer goods was lower here because fewer houses, furnishings and consumer goods were missing. And those who urgently needed all of this did not have the necessary liquidity. At the same time, the arms industry, z. B. Messerschmitt GmbH , the Wehrmacht and the wasteful Nazi state as contractors and employers have ceased to exist. So you first had to switch to the peace economy in order to get the necessary jobs. In addition, from 1949 the Upper Palatinate found itself together with Upper Franconia in a dead corner of the republic, indeed the entire western world. To the north and east one very quickly encountered hard borders, behind which lucrative markets had disappeared. So a stone was taken from the hearts of the Upper Palatinate when the Iron Curtain was lifted again in 1989 . Until then, the people of Upper Palatinate had worked their way out of the deficiency, made up for the population loss through high birth rates and finally experienced an unprecedented building boom. Regensburg, Amberg, Weiden, Schwandorf and Neumarkt penetrated for kilometers into their agriculturally determined surrounding area.
The University of Regensburg was founded on July 10, 1962 by resolution of the Bavarian State Parliament . In the years that followed, the university was gradually built up until Franz Mayer was elected as the first Regensburg rector in the summer of 1967 and teaching could begin on November 6, 1967. It is now a full university with 11 faculties , 182 chairs and a wide range of courses. Initially planned as a regional university, it has now developed into a center for research and teaching that is known throughout Germany . The Philosophical-Theological University of Regensburg , founded in 1923 , previously an episcopal lyceum , became part of the Regensburg University and formed the basis for the development of the theological faculty. The Regensburg University of Education , which was founded in 1958 and previously belonged to the University of Munich , was also incorporated. With the start of teaching, a long-cherished wish came true for the city of Regensburg and the surrounding area: As early as 1487, Duke Albrecht IV of Bavaria and the city council submitted a petition to the Pope , which decreed the establishment of a university in Regensburg should be. Despite the papal agreement, the project failed at the time due to the economic situation, but the idea of founding a university remained alive in the later centuries.
The last turning point in the history of the Upper Palatinate was the regional reform in Bavaria , which was carried out between 1971 and 1980 and aimed at creating more efficient communities and districts . This should be achieved through larger administrative units ( community mergers ), which, in the opinion of the Bavarian state government , would work more efficiently. As part of the reorganization of Bavaria into rural districts and independent cities, which was decided on December 15, 1971 and came into force on July 1, 1972, the previous 19 districts became a total of 7 new districts . 2 of the former 5 urban districts lost their district freedom. Significant parts of the district of Riedenburg in Lower Bavaria, the main part of the district of Beilngries in Upper Bavaria, the market in Neuhaus on the Pegnitz in Middle Franconia, and Speichersdorf and Mehlmeisel in Upper Franconia were lost. In return, the Upper Palatinate received almost the entire district of Kötzting and the market Schierling of Lower Bavaria. The number of municipalities shrank by 2/3 by 1978 to currently 223 municipalities.
The Upper Palatinate became known nationwide through the resistance against the Wackersdorf reprocessing plant . The actual construction work lasted from 1985 to 1989, accompanied by countless demonstrations, riots and confrontations with the police, as well as extensive reporting. After the death of the Bavarian Prime Minister Franz Josef Strauss in 1988, one of the main supporters of the WAA, the project was quickly dropped. After the project was discontinued, the WAA managers were able to rent or sell the premises to industrial companies within a few weeks. At the end of 1989, BMW signed a contract to purchase part of the site (50 ha). Today, the Wackersdorf community primarily benefits from the Wackersdorf industrial park, which is why it is one of the richest communities in Bavaria. The Upper Palatinate is mainly developed today by the A 93 (completion in December 2000) and the A 6 (also called Via Carolina, completion in September 2008). Since 1972 there are also the two planning regions Upper Palatinate North and Regensburg with the main part of the Kelheim district . To what extent this split is sustainable remains questionable. Because the southern part is only united by the center of Regensburg and the north has structural problems.
Remarks
- ↑ Archive link ( Memento of the original from November 19, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Wilfried Menghin, Die Langobard, Konrad Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart, p. 196
- ↑ Gerd Althoff: Heinrich IV. Darmstadt 2006, pp. 228-253; Monika Suchan: royal rule in dispute. Conflict settlement in the reign of Henry IV between violence, conversation and writing. Stuttgart 1997, pp. 166-172.
- ↑ Gerold Meyer von Knonau offers an overview of the sources: Yearbooks of the German Empire under Heinrich IV. And Heinrich V. Vol. 5, Berlin 1964, pp. 195ff.
- ↑ KH Kirch, Die Diepoldinger in der Oberpfalz, p. 58 ff. In Oberpfälzer Heimatspiegel, No. 12 and Heimat Oberpfalz, p. 82 ff.
- ↑ Harald Schieder, Ralph Forster, Bierführer Ostbayern, Verlag Hans Carl Nürnberg 2014, p. 44, p. 226
- ^ Andreas Kraus, "History of the Upper Palatinate until the end of the 18th century" CH Beck Verlag Munich 1995, p. 151
- ↑ http://www.bayerische-eisenstrasse.de/index.php?id=3085
- ↑ https://www.mineralienatlas.de/lexikon/index.php/Deutschland/Bayern/Oberpfalz%2C%20Bezirk/Schwandorf%2C%20Landkreis/W%F6lsendorf%2C%20Revier/Silber-%20und%20Bleibergbauzeit
- ↑ Theuern mining museum exhibition board
- ^ Heribert Sturm: The Emperor's Land in Bavaria , pp. 208f.
- ↑ Fritz Schnelbögl : The " Bohemian Salbüchlein " Emperor Karl IV. , P. 20
- ↑ Heribert Sturm: Des Kaisers Land in Bayern , p. 210
- ^ History of the Upper Palatinate and the Bavarian Imperial Circle Volume 3, CH Beck Verlag, 1995, p. 64f
- ↑ Amedeo Molnar, Die Waldenser, Union Verlag Berlin, 1973, pp. 142ff
- ↑ https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/ADB:Martin_von_Amberg
- ↑ https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Constitutio_Rupertina,_1395
- ↑ Otto Brandt: Ulrich von Richental's Chronicle of the Council of Constance. R.Voigtländer Verlag Leipzig, 1912.
- ↑ Josua Eiselein: Justified evidence of the plaz near the city of Constanz, on which Johannes Hus and Hieronymus of Prague in the years 1415 a. Burned in 1416.
- ↑ Peter Jeschke, Michael Matheus: Rural legal sources from the Kurmainzer Rheingau. Volume 54, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2003
- ↑ Werner Rösener, Carola Fey: Fürstenhof and sacral culture in the late Middle Ages. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008, p. 155 ff.
- ^ Rall, H. u M .: The Wittelsbacher. From Otto I. to Elisabeth I., Verlag Styria Graz / Vienna / Cologne 1986, p. 223
- ↑ http://www.theatergruppe-brand.de/historisches-marktspektakel-und-schlachtgetummel-am-0708082004-in-schwarzenreuth/
- ↑ Manfred Hollegger, “Maximilian I, Rulers and Humans”, W. Kohlhammer GmbH, Stuttgart, 2005, pp. 153–161.
- ↑ http://www.weiden-stmichael.de/geschichte
- ^ Johann Nicolaus Apel : The rough Kulm and its surroundings together with a history and topography of Neustadt an den Kulmen in the Main district. Bayreuth 1811.
- ^ Karl-Otto Ambronn, Amberg and the Upper Palatinate estates until their dissolution in 1628, in: Amberg 1034–1984. From 1000 years of city history. Exhibition of the Amberg State Archives and the City of Amberg in the Amberg City Hall on the occasion of the 950th anniversary of the City of Amberg, Amberg, July 7th - 29th, 1984 (exhibition catalogs of the Bavarian State Archives 18), Amberg 1984, 75-909.
- ^ Brunner Johann, Gleißner Max: History of the city of Tirschenreuth. 1933, reprinted in 1982, p. 52.
- ↑ Max Gleißner: The Age of the Reformation in Tirschenreuth . In: Tirschenreuth in the course of the tides . tape 4 . Steyler Verlagbuchhandlung, Tirschenreuth 1986, p. 53 .
- ↑ https://www2.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbillons/land.html
- ↑ Johann Weyer: De praestigiis daemonum et incantationibus ac veneficiis ; Basel: Johann Oporinus successor 2nd ed. 1577, p. 716f.
- ↑ http://www.anton-praetorius.de/downloads/namenslisten/Regensburg%20Namensliste%20nach%20Ebner%203.pdf
- ^ Sigmund von Riezler, History of the witch trials in Bavaria, Stuttgart 1896, p. 229.
- ↑ Anna Schiener, Little History of the Upper Palatinate, Pustet Regensburg 2011, p. 102.
- ↑ https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Landst%C3%A4nde_der_Oberpfalz
- ^ Matthias Schöberl: From the Palatinate State to the Bavarian State. Sovereign penetration and religious policy of the Palatinate and Bavarian rule in the Upper Palatinate from 1595 to 1648. Inaugural dissertation to obtain a doctorate from the Philosophical Faculty III of the University of Regensburg. Regensburg 2006, DNB 980424429, p. 238
- ↑ Schöberl: From the Palatinate state to the Bavarian state. Regensburg 2006, p. 245.
- ↑ Peter Engerisser: From Kronach to Nördlingen. The Thirty Years' War in Franconia Swabia and the Upper Palatinate 1631–1635. Späthling, Weißenstadt 2007, ISBN 978-3-926621-56-6 , pp. 210-212, 232-252 .
- ↑ http://simultankirchenradweg.de/karte.htm
- ↑ http://www.bayern-fichtelgebirge.de/hochebene/11.htm
- ↑ http://ernaehrungsdenkwerkstatt.de/fileadmin/user_upload/EDWText/TextElemente/Philatelie/ARGE_LANDWIRTSCHAFT/Henseler__Buch_Kartoffel-Geschichte_401_Zeittafel.pdf
- ^ Max Braubach: Johann Wilhelm. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 10, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1974, ISBN 3-428-00191-5 , pp. 516-518 ( digitized version ).
- ↑ https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Bezirke
- ^ Emanuel Schmid: Festivals in Regensburg . Ed .: Karl Möseneder. Mittelbayerische Druckerei- und Verlags-Gesellschaft, Regensburg 1986, ISBN 3-921114-09-8 , The festivities on the occasion of the laying of the foundation stone for the Walhalla in 1830 (No. 83), p. 443-459 .
- ↑ Annika Poloczek: The Walhalla - development and construction history, architectural design . First edition. Grin, 2007, ISBN 978-3-638-67220-7 , pp. 13 .
- ↑ Source: Statistical Yearbook of the City of Amberg ( Memento of the original from October 18, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 1.9 MB), 13th edition, 2010/2011, p. 28.
- ↑ https://www.heimatforschung-regensburg.de/2167/1/901995_DTL1874.pdf
- ↑ http://www.wahlen-in-deutschland.de/wrtwniedbayobpfal.htm
- ^ Helmut W. Schaller, Bayerische Ostmark, 1933–1945, in: Historisches Lexikon Bayerns ( online ).
- ↑ "They are coming, The last days of the war in the Upper Palatinate 1945" Book and Art Publishing House Oberpfalz, Amberg, 2nd revised edition 2015.
- ↑ http://wiki-de.genealogy.net/Grenzdurchgangslager_in_Bayern
- ^ Alfred Grosser: History of Germany since 1945. A balance sheet. Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, Munich, 9th edition 1981. pp. 100–101. ISBN 3-423-01007-X .
- ↑ A rare luck - the most expensive industrial site ever to be given in Germany is now being populated by small and large companies. - ( Der Spiegel of July 24, 1989)
- ↑ Car seats instead of autonomous ones - New use for the site of the Wackersdorf nuclear facility - ( Neue Zürcher Zeitung of November 17, 2003)
Literature and Sources
- Ackermann, Konrad: The Upper Palatinate. Main features of their historical development . E. Kastner printing house, Wolnzach 1987.
- Benker, Gertrud: Home Upper Palatinate . Pustet, Regensburg 1965.
- von Destouches, Joseph: Statistical description of the Upper Palatinate before and after the latest organization . 3 parts. Seidelsche Kunst- und Buchhandlung, Sulzbach 1809 ( digitized SUB Göttingen )
- Schiener, Anna: A short history of the Upper Palatinate . Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg 2011.
- Schöberl, Matthias: From the Palatinate State to the Bavarian State. Sovereign penetration and religious policy of the Palatinate and Bavarian rule in the Upper Palatinate from 1595 to 1648 . Dissertation, University of Regensburg 2006 ( full text ).
- Becker, Hans-Jürgen (ed.): The Palatinate Lion in Bavaria. On the history of the Upper Palatinate , Universitätsverlag Regensburg, 1997.
- http://www.stiber-faehnlein.de/xhistorisch/pest.htm
Web links
- ^ Matthias Schöberl: From the Palatinate State to the Bavarian State. Sovereign penetration and religious policy of the Palatinate and Bavarian rule in the Upper Palatinate from 1595 to 1648 . Inaugural dissertation to obtain a doctorate from the Philosophical Faculty III of the University of Regensburg. Regensburg 2006, DNB 980424429 , p. 238 ( Online [PDF; 6.1 MB ; accessed on January 23, 2013]).
- ↑ Schöberl: From the Palatinate state to the Bavarian state . Regensburg 2006, p. 245 .