History of radiation protection
The history of radiation protection begins at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries with the realization that ionizing radiation from natural and artificial radiation sources can have a damaging effect on living organisms. It is thus also the story of radiation damage .
After radioactive substances or X-rays were handled carelessly in the early days , the increasing awareness of the dangers of radiation in the course of the 20th century led to various preventive measures around the world, which led to corresponding regulations on radiation protection . The first victims were the radiologists , who went down in medical history as the "martyrs" of radiological progress. Many of them suffered amputations due to radiation damage or died of cancer. The use of radioactive substances in everyday life was considered “chic”. Little by little, the health effects became known, their causes explored and awareness for protective measures raised. A drastic change took place after the atomic bombs were dropped in World War II . The consequences of natural " cosmic radiation ", the effects of radioactive substances such as radon and radium occurring in the environment and the possible damage to health from non-ionizing radiation were also increasingly recognized . Protective measures have been drawn up and introduced worldwide, monitoring devices have been developed, and laws and radiation protection regulations have been passed.
In the 21st century, regulations are becoming increasingly stringent. In particular, the permissible limit values for the strength of ionizing radiation are subject to further corrections towards lower values. The term radiation protection is also given a broader definition; it now also contains regulations for dealing with non-ionizing radiation.
In the Federal Republic of Germany, radiation protection regulations are drawn up and issued by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU). The Federal Office for Radiation Protection cooperates professionally. In Switzerland the Radiation Protection Department of the Federal Office of Public Health and in Austria the Federal Ministry for Climate Protection, Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology .
X-rays
First radiation effects
The discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923) in 1895 led to extensive experiments by scientists, doctors and inventors. The first X-ray machines produced extremely unfavorable radiation spectra with extremely high skin doses for imaging. In February 1896, John Daniel and William Lofland Dudley (1859–1914) of Vanderbilt University conducted an experiment in which Dudley's head was x-rayed, which led to hair loss. Herbert D. Hawks , a Columbia University graduate , suffered severe hand and chest burns during X-ray demonstration experiments. Burns and hair loss have been reported in professional journals . Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), for example, was one of the first researchers in the Electrical Review on May 5, 1897 to expressly warn against the potential danger of X-rays - after initially attributing them to be absolutely harmless. He himself had to experience massive radiation damage himself after his tests. Nevertheless, at that time some doctors still claimed that X-rays had no effects on humans at all. X-ray facilities were operated without any protective measures until the 1940s.
Röntgen himself was spared the fate of other X-ray users through a habit. He carried the unexposed photographic plates around with him at all times in his pockets and found that they would be exposed if he stayed in the same room during the radiation exposure. So he regularly left the room to take x-rays.
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The use of X-rays in diagnosis in dentistry was made possible by the pioneering work of C. Edmund Kells (1856–1928), a dentist from New Orleans, who demonstrated it to dentists in Asheville, North Carolina in July 1896. Kells committed suicide after a long history of suffering from radiation-induced cancer. One finger after the other had been amputated, later the whole hand, followed by the forearm, and then the whole arm.
Otto Walkhoff (1860–1934), one of the most important German dentists in history, also carried out self-experiment x-rays in 1896 and is considered a pioneer of dental radiology. He described the necessary exposure time of 25 minutes as "an ordeal". The Braunschweig medical community later commissioned him to set up and look after a central X-ray station. In a self- experiment in 1898 - i.e. the year radium was discovered - he tried out the use of radium in medicine using a quantity of 0.2 g of radium bromide, which is unimaginable today . Walkhoff observed that cancerous mice exposed to radium radiation died significantly later than a comparison group of untreated mice. He initiated the development of radiation research for the treatment of tumors .
The Armenian-American radiologist Mihran Krikor Kassabian (1870-1910), Vice President of the American Roentgen Ray Society (ARRS), studied the irritative effects of X-rays. In one publication he mentioned the increasing problems with his hands. Although Kassabian recognized the x-rays as the cause, he avoided making this connection so as not to hinder progress in radiology. In 1902 he suffered a severe radiation burn on his hand. Six years later, the hand became necrotic and two fingers on his left hand were amputated. Kassabian kept a journal and photographed his hands as the tissue damage progressed. He died of the effects of cancer in 1910.
Many of the early X-ray and radioactivity researchers went down in history as "martyrs for science". Sarah Zobel of the University of Vermont refers in her article The Miracle and the Martyrs ( German Das Wunder und die Martyrer ) to a banquet that was held in honor of many pioneers of X-raying in 1920. There was chicken for dinner: “Shortly after the meal was served, it could be seen that some of the participants were unable to enjoy the meal. After years of working with X-rays, many participants lost their fingers or hands to radiation exposure and were unable to cut the meat themselves. ”The first American to die from radiation exposure was Clarence Madison Dally (1845–1904), assistant to Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931). Edison began examining X-rays almost immediately after Röntgen's discovery and delegated that task to Dally. Over time, Dally had to undergo over 100 skin surgeries due to the radiation damage. Eventually both of his arms had to be amputated. His death in 1904 caused Edison to give up any further X-ray research.
One of the pioneers was the Austrian Gustav Kaiser (1871–1954), who in 1896 succeeded in capturing a double toe with 1½– 2 hours of exposure. Due to the lack of knowledge he also had severe radiation damage to his hands and lost several fingers and the right metacarpal. His work was, among other things, the basis for the construction of lead rubber aprons. Heinrich Albers-Schönberg (1865–1921), the world's first professor of radiology, recommended gonadal protection for testicles and ovaries in 1903 . He was one of the first to protect the germ cells not only from acute radiation damage, but also from small doses of radiation that can accumulate over time and cause long-term damage. Albers-Schönberg also died at the age of 56 from the consequences of x-ray damage.
A radiology memorial in the garden of the St. Georg Hospital in Hamburg-St. Since April 4, 1936, Georg has been remembering 359 victims from 23 countries among the first medical users of X-rays.
First warnings
In 1896, the engineer Wolfram Fuchs recommended, based on his experience with numerous X-ray examinations, to keep the radiation time as short as possible, to keep a distance from the tube and to cover the skin with Vaseline - this was the first such publication worldwide. The Chicago doctors William Fuchs and Otto Schmidt were the first users in 1897 who had to pay compensation to a patient for radiation damage.
In 1901, the dentist William Herbert Rollins (1852–1929) demanded that when working with X-rays, protective goggles with lead glass should be worn, the X-ray tube should be enclosed with lead and all areas of the body should be covered with lead aprons . He published over 200 articles on the possible dangers of X-rays, but his suggestions have long been ignored. A year later, Rollins wrote in desperation that his warnings about the dangers of X-rays were being ignored by both industry and his colleagues. At this point, Rollins had already shown that X-rays can kill laboratory animals and cause miscarriages in guinea pigs. Rollin's merits were recognized late. Since then he has gone down in radiology history as the "father of radiation protection". He became a member of the Radiological Society of North America and its first treasurer.
Radiation protection continued to develop through the invention of new measuring devices such as the chromoradiometer by Guido Holzknecht (1872–1931) in 1902, the radiometer by Raymond Sabouraud (1864–1938) and Henri Noiré (1878–1937) in 1904/05 as well of the quantimeter by Robert Kienböck (1873–1951) in 1905. This allowed maximum doses to be specified at which it was most likely that no skin changes occurred. Also Radium was the British Roentgen Society involved, which published in 1921 a first memorandum, which was specifically designed for radium protection.
Unneeded applications
Pedoscope
In many shoe stores in North America and Europe since the 1920s Pedoskope placed in the US alone more than 10,000, invented by Jacob Lowe, a physicist from Boston. These were X-ray machines for checking the fit of shoes, which were used to promote sales when buying shoes, especially for children. Children were especially fascinated by the sight of their foot bones. The fluoroscopy was often done several times in a day to assess different shoes with regard to their fit. Most of the devices were in shoe stores until the early 1970s. The absorbed dose absorbed by the customer was up to 116 rads , which corresponds to 1.16 gray. In the 1950s, when medical knowledge about the health risks was already available, warning notices were attached to the pedoscopes, according to which shoe buyers should not be x-rayed more than three times a day and twelve times a year.
By the early 1950s, a number of professional organizations issued warnings against continued use of shoe-fitting fluoroscopes, such as the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists , the American College of Surgeons , the New York Academy of Medicine, and the American College of Radiology . At the same time, the District of Columbia issued regulations that require fluoroscopes for shoes to be operated only by a licensed physical therapist. A few years later, the State of Massachusetts passed regulations that would only allow these machines to be operated by a licensed doctor. In 1957, a Pennsylvania court order banned the use of shoe-fitting fluoroscopes. By 1960 these measures and pressure from insurance companies led to the disappearance of the shoe fitting fluoroscope, at least in the United States.
In Switzerland there were 1,500, and from 1963 onwards around 850 shoe x-ray machines in operation, which had to be checked by the Swiss Electrotechnical Association on the basis of an ordinance issued by the Federal Department of Home Affairs on October 7, 1963 . The last one was not shut down until 1990.
The devices were only banned in Germany in 1976. The children, parents and sales staff were exposed to uncontrolled x-rays during the fluoroscopy (no x-ray, but continuous operation), which lasted as long as the power button was pressed. The X-rays could also pass unhindered through the pure wooden paneling of the device. If the pedoscope was near the cash register, the cashier was exposed to a particularly high level of radiation exposure because of the cumulative amount. The long-term effects of X-rays, both in terms of genetic damage and carcinogenicity, are now known. The extent to which the worldwide use of pedoscopes over decades was causal for health consequences cannot, however, specifically be proven. A direct connection is being discussed, for example in basal cell carcinoma of the foot. In 1950 a case was published in which a model for shoes had to be amputated because of this.
radiotherapy
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In 1896 the Viennese dermatologist Leopold Freund (1868–1943) used X-rays for the first time to treat patients. He successfully irradiated the hairy nevus of a young girl. In 1897 Hermann Gocht (1869–1931) published radiation treatment for trigeminal neuralgia , and Alexei Petrowitsch Sokolow (1854–1928) wrote progress in the field of X-rays (RöFo) on radiation therapy for arthritis (joint inflammation) in the oldest specialist radiological journal . In 1922, treatment with X-rays was recommended as safe for numerous diseases and for diagnosis. Radiation protection was limited to making dose recommendations which, above all, should not cause erythema (reddening of the skin). For example, X-ray radiation was promoted as an alternative to tonsillectomy (removal of tonsils). It was also praised that in 80% of the cases of diphtheria carriers , Corynebacterium diphtheriae was no longer detectable within two to four days . The Freiburg radiologist Günther von Pannewitz (1900–1966) perfected what he called X - ray stimulation for degenerative diseases in the 1930s. Weakly dosed radiation reduces the inflammatory reaction of the tissue. Until around 1960, diseases such as Bechterew's disease or Favus (head fungus) were therefore also irradiated in children, which was effective, but decades later resulted in increased cancer rates among patients. The American pathologist James Ewing (1866-1943) was the first to observe bone changes in 1926 as a result of radiation therapy, which he called radiation osteitis (today osteoradionecrosis ). In 1983 Robert E. Marx determined that osteoradionecrosis is radiation-induced aseptic bone necrosis. The acute and chronic inflammatory processes of osteoradionecrosis are prevented with the administration of steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Administration of pentoxifylline and antioxidant treatment , such as superoxide dismutase and tocopherol (vitamin E), are also recommended.
Radiation protection during X-ray examinations
Preliminary remark
The sonography (ultrasound diagnostics) is a versatile and frequently used imaging method in medical diagnosis. Ultrasound is also used in therapy . However, mechanical waves and no ionizing or non-ionizing radiation are used. The safety of the patient is guaranteed if the recommended limit values for avoiding cavitation and overheating are observed, see also safety aspects of sonography .
Also in the case of devices that work with magnetic alternating fields in the radio frequency range, such as magnetic resonance tomography (MRT), no ionizing radiation is used. In 1973, MRT was developed as an imaging method by Paul Christian Lauterbur (1929–2007) with significant contributions from Sir Peter Mansfield (1933–2017). There is a possibility that jewelry or piercings will become very hot; on the other hand, a high tensile force is exerted on the jewelry, which in the worst case can lead to tearing. In order to avoid pain and injuries, the jewelry should be removed beforehand if it contains ferromagnetic metal. Cardiac pacemakers , defibrillator systems and large tattoos in the examination area that contain metal-containing color pigments can heat up or cause skin burns up to degree II or cause the implants to fail.
The photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is a hybrid imaging method which utilizes the photo-acoustic effect, and also does not use ionizing radiation. It works without contact with very fast laser pulses that generate ultrasound in the tissue to be examined. The local absorption of the light leads to sudden local heating and the resulting thermal expansion. This ultimately generates broadband acoustic waves. By measuring the outgoing ultrasonic waves with appropriate ultrasonic transducers, the original distribution of the absorbed energy can be reconstructed.
Detection of radiation exposure
In order to better estimate radiation protection, the number of X-ray examinations including the dose has been recorded annually in Germany since 2007. However, no complete data from the Federal Statistical Office is available for conventional X-ray examinations . For 2014, a total of around 135 million x-ray examinations was estimated for Germany, including around 55 million x-ray examinations in the dental field. The mean effective dose from X-ray examinations per inhabitant in Germany for 2014 was around 1.55 mSv (around 1.7 X-ray examinations per inhabitant and year). The proportion of dental x-rays is 41%, but only accounts for 0.4% of the collective effective dose.
In Germany, the X-ray Ordinance (RöV) has stipulated in Section 28 since 2002 that the attending physician must have X -ray passports ready and offer them to the person being examined. Information on the patient's X-ray examinations was entered there in order to avoid unnecessary repeat examinations and to have the possibility of comparison with previous images. With the entry into force of the new Radiation Protection Ordinance on December 31, 2018, this obligation no longer applies. In Austria and Switzerland, X-ray passports are currently only available on a voluntary basis. Basically, always both a need justifying indication for use of X-rays given his and an informed consent ( English informed consent ) be patient. In connection with medical treatment, informed consent refers to the patient's consent to all types of interventions and other medical measures ( Section 630d BGB).
Radiation reduction
Over the years, increasing efforts have been made to reduce the radiation exposure of therapists and patients.
Radiation protective clothing
After Rollins' discovery in 1920 that lead aprons protect against X-rays, lead aprons with a lead thickness of 0.5 mm were introduced. Due to their high weight, lead-free or lead-reduced aprons were subsequently developed. In 2005 it was recognized that the protection was sometimes considerably less than when wearing lead aprons. The lead-free aprons contain tin , antimony and barium , which have the property of developing intense natural radiation ( X-ray fluorescence radiation) when exposed to radiation. In Germany, the Radiology Standards Committee took up the topic and introduced a German standard (DIN 6857–1) in 2009. In 2014, the international standard IEC 61331-3: 2014 was finally issued. Protective aprons that do not comply with DIN 6857–1 from 2009 or the new IEC 61331–1 from 2014 can lead to higher exposure. Basically there are two lead equivalence classes 0.25 mm and 0.35 mm. The manufacturer must specify the weight per unit area in kg / m² at which the protective effect of a pure lead apron of 0.25 or 0.35 mm Pb is achieved. The protective effect of an apron must be suitable for the energy range used, for low-energy aprons up to 110 kV and for high-energy aprons up to 150 kV.
If necessary, lead glasses must also be used, with front glasses having a lead equivalent of 0.5–1.0 mm lead depending on the application, with a lead equivalent for the side protection of 0.5–0.75 mm lead.
Outside of the useful beam, the radiation exposure mainly arises from the scattered radiation of the illuminated tissue. When examining the head and torso, this scattered radiation can spread inside the body and can hardly be shielded by radiation protective clothing. However, the fear that a lead apron will prevent the radiation from leaving the body is unfounded, since lead absorbs the radiation strongly and hardly scatters it.
For the preparation of an orthopantomogram (OPG) for a dental overview, it is sometimes recommended to dispense with a lead apron, as this hardly shields the scattered radiation from the jaw area, but can possibly hinder the rotation of the recording device. According to the X-ray ordinance valid in 2018, however, it is still mandatory to wear a lead apron when making an OPG.
X-ray intensifying foils
In the same year that X-rays were discovered, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin (1858–1935) invented the method of placing a sheet of paper coated with fluorescent substances on the photographic plate , thereby drastically reducing the exposure time and thus the radiation exposure. 95% of the film was blackened by the intensifying screens and only the remaining 5% were blackened directly by the X-rays. Thomas Alva Edison identified the blue shining calcium tungstate (CaWO 4 ) as a suitable phosphor, which quickly became the standard for X-ray intensifying screens . In the 1970s, calcium tungstate was replaced by intensifying screens with luminescent materials ( terbium- activated lanthanum oxybromide , gadolinium oxysulphide ) based on rare earths , which were even better for amplifying and showing more fine detail . The use of intensifying screens in the production of dental films has not caught on because of a loss in image quality. The combination with highly sensitive films reduced the radiation exposure even further.
Anti-scatter grid
An anti -scatter grid ( English Potter-Bucky grid ) is a device in X-ray technology that is attached in front of the image receiver ( screen , detector or film ) and reduces the incidence of diffuse radiation on it. The first anti-scatter grid was developed in 1913 by Gustav Peter Bucky (1880–1963). The American radiologist Hollis Elmer Potter (1880-1964) improved it and added a movement device in 1917. When using anti-scatter grids, the radiation dose must be increased. With children, therefore, the use of anti-scatter grids should be avoided if possible. With digital radiography, a grid can be dispensed with under certain conditions in order to reduce the patient's radiation exposure.
Radiation protection rail
Radiation protection measures may also be necessary against scattered radiation , which arises from tumor radiation in the head and neck area on metal parts of the dentition ( dental fillings , bridges and the like). Since the 1990s, soft tissue retractors known as radiation protection splints have been used to prevent or reduce mucositis , an inflammation of the mucous membrane . It is the most significant undesirable, acute radiation side effect. The radiation protection splint is a spacer that keeps the mucous membranes away from the teeth so that the scattered radiation hitting the mucous membrane is reduced in accordance with the law of the square of the distance . The extremely painful mucositis represents the greatest impairment of the patient's quality of life and often limits radiation treatment, which reduces the chances of tumor healing. The splint reduces the reactions on the oral mucosa, which typically occur in the second and third third of a radiation therapy series and are irreversible.
Panoramic X-ray machine
The Japanese Hisatugu Numata developed the first panoramic X-ray machine in 1933/34 . This was followed by the development of the intraoral panoramic X-ray devices , in which the X-ray tube is intra-oral (inside the mouth) and the X-ray film is extra - oral (outside the mouth). At the same time, Horst Beger from Dresden in 1943 and the Swiss dentist Walter Ott in 1946 were busy with it, which resulted in the Panoramix ( Koch & Sterzel ), Status X ( Siemens ) and Oralix ( Philips ) devices . Intraoral panorama devices were shut down at the end of the 1980s because the radiation exposure in direct contact with the tongue and the oral mucosa through the intraoral tube was too high.
Digital X-ray
Eastman Kodak filed the first patent for digital x-ray in 1973. The first commercial CR (Computed Radiology) solution was offered by Fujifilm in Japan in 1983 under the device name CR-101 . X- ray imaging foils are used in X-ray diagnostics to record the shadow image of the X-ray radiation. The first commercial digital X-ray system for use in dentistry was introduced in 1986 by Trophy Radiology (France) under the name Radiovisiography . Digital X-ray systems help reduce radiation exposure. Instead of the film, the devices contain a scintillator that converts incident X-ray photons either into visible light or directly into electrical impulses.
Computed Tomography
In 1972, the first commercial CT scanner for clinical use was put into operation at London's Atkinsons Morley Hospital. Its inventor is the English engineer Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield (1919–2004), who, together with Allan McLeod Cormack (1924–1998), was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1979 for his pioneering work in the field of computed tomography . The first steps towards dose reduction were taken in 1989 in the era of single-slice spiral computed tomography. The introduction of multi-slice spiral computed tomography in 1998 and its constant further development made it possible to work with reduced doses thanks to dose modulation. The tube current is adjusted by reducing the power compared to the abdomen when recording the lungs, for example . The tube current is modulated during rotation. Since the human body has an approximately oval cross-section, the radiation intensity is reduced when radiation is applied from the front or from the rear, and increased if radiation is applied from the side. This dose regulation also takes place depending on the body mass index . For example, the use of dose modulation in the head and neck region leads to a reduction of the total exposure and the organ doses of the thyroid gland and lens of the eye by up to 50% without any relevant impairment of the diagnostic image quality. The Computed Tomography Dose Index (CTDI) is used to measure the radiation exposure during an examination with a computer tomograph. The CTDI was first defined by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1981. The unit of measurement of the CTDI is the mGy (milli- gray ). The dose-length product (DLP) is obtained by multiplying the CTDI by the length of the examination volume; it quantifies the patient's total radiation exposure during a CT examination.
Structural protective measures
An X-ray room must be shielded from radiation-proof with a 1 mm lead equivalent. When masonry is sand-lime brick or solid brick recommended. A steel frame should be used, not only because of the weight of the heavy radiation protection door , but also because of the shielding; Wooden frames must be extra leaded. The radiation protection door must be covered with a 1 mm thick lead foil, a lead glass window must be installed as a visual connection . Avoid a keyhole. All installations (sanitary or electrical) that interrupt radiation protection must be leaded (Section 20 X-ray Ordinance ) and Appendix 2 (to Section 8 (1) sentence 1 RöV) .
In nuclear medicine , depending on the intended use, far more extensive protective measures, up to meter-thick concrete walls, are necessary. In addition, a medical physics expert in X-ray diagnostics and therapy must be consulted for the optimization and quality assurance of the application and for advice on radiation protection issues from December 31, 2018, when the latest changes in Section 14 (1) No. 2b of the Radiation Protection Act come into force .
Qualification certificate
Every facility that operates an X-ray machine must have sufficient personnel with appropriate specialist knowledge. The person responsible for radiation protection or one or more radiation protection officers must have a corresponding qualification, which must be constantly updated. X-ray examinations may be carried out technically by all other employees of a medical or dental practice if they are under the direct supervision and responsibility of the competent person and if they themselves also have knowledge of radiation protection.
This knowledge in radiation protection has been required since the amendment of the X-ray Ordinance in 1987; Corresponding follow-up training for medical and dental assistants (then medical assistants or dental assistants) took place in 1990. For the field of radiology, the regulations were tightened by the Radiation Protection Act, which came into force on October 1, 2017.
The handling of radioactive substances and ionizing radiation (if not covered by the X-ray Ordinance) is regulated by the Radiation Protection Ordinance (StrlSchV). In § 30 StrlSchV, the “required specialist knowledge and knowledge in radiation protection” is defined.
Radiation protection associations
The Association of German Radiation Protection Doctors (VDSÄ) was formed at the end of the 1950s from a working group of radiation protection doctors of the German Red Cross and was founded in 1964. It was dedicated to the promotion of radiation protection and the representation of medical, dental and veterinary concerns of radiation protection to the public and the health care system. It has been absorbed by the Association for Radiation Protection since 2017. The Austrian Association for Radiation Protection (ÖVS), founded in 1966, pursues the same goals with the Association for Medical Radiation Protection in Austria. The professional association for radiation protection for Germany and Switzerland is networked worldwide.
Radiation protection in radiation therapy
In addition to the structural protective measures and precautions to protect therapists, radiation protection tends to take a back seat in radiation therapy . In the benefit / risk assessment, the focus of the patient is on the therapeutic goal of treating cancer. Radiation protection focuses on ensuring that the radiation only develops its effect where it is desired through appropriate radiation planning. Because of their superior technical properties and with regard to risks, the linear accelerators, which have been available since around 1970, replaced the cobalt and cesium emitters in routine therapy. In contrast to the X-ray and telecuri systems, linear accelerators may only be used in the presence of a medical physicist who is also responsible for technical quality control. As Strahlennekrose is called the ionizing radiation by the action induced necrosis of cells of an organism. Radionecrosis is the most important and most serious complication of radiosurgical treatments, which usually does not become clinically noticeable until months or years after radiation. With advances in the advancement of radiation therapy, the incidence has decreased significantly compared to the early days of radiotherapy. Modern radiation techniques protect the healthy tissue as much as possible. Basically, however, there is a dilemma between sparing healthy tissue in order to avoid radiation necrosis and irradiating the area around the tumor as large as possible in order to avoid a relapse. There is therefore no limit value for radiation risk for patients undergoing radiation therapy .
Radiation protection and radiation damage in veterinary medicine
Very little is recorded in the literature about radiation damage to animals caused by the use of diagnostic radiation. Apart from local burns, which are caused by long exposure of body parts or by jumping over sparks from old X-ray tubes, nothing is known in the literature. Radiation damage to veterinary staff and to the veterinarian himself cannot be compared with the frequency of damage that is known in human medicine. In veterinary medicine, fewer recordings are made than in human medicine, especially fewer computed tomograms, but animals are often still held with the hands in order to avoid anesthesia. This means that there is at least one person in the controlled area, and their radiation exposure is considerably higher than that of the human medical staff. Since the 1970s, the radiation exposure of staff during x-rays in veterinary practices has been determined by dosimeters.
The feline hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) is a common disease of older cats. The radioactive iodine is considered by many authors as the treatment of choice. After the administration of radioactive iodine, the cats are kept in an isolation pen. After the therapy, the discharge time can be determined after measuring the cat's radioactivity. This is usually around 14 days after the start of therapy. The treatment is associated with considerable radiation protection requirements and is therefore only available at two veterinary facilities in Germany (as of 2010). At home, the cats must be kept in the apartment for 4 weeks after the start of therapy and contact with pregnant women and children under 16 years of age must be avoided due to the residual radioactive radiation.
Every veterinary practice that operates an X-ray device, like a medical practice, must provide evidence of sufficient staff with the corresponding specialist knowledge, which is required in § 18 of the X-ray Ordinance from 2002. Corresponding follow-up training for veterinary employees (then veterinary assistants ) took place in 1990.
Europe's first clinic for horses with cancer was opened in Linsengericht (Hessen) in 2017. The radiation therapy takes place in an eight-meter-wide treatment room on a specially constructed table that can withstand the heavy weight. Walls three meters thick protect the environment from radiation. At various locations, tumors in small animals are irradiated with mobile devices.
Radioactive substances
radon
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive noble gas that was discovered in 1900 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn (1848–1916) and is considered to be carcinogenic . Radon occurs more frequently in areas with high levels of uranium and thorium in the soil. These are mainly areas with high granite deposits . According to studies by the World Health Organization , the incidence of lung cancer increases significantly at radiation levels of 100–200 Bq per cubic meter of room air. The likelihood of lung cancer increases with an increase of another 100 Bq / m³ in the room air by 10%.
In numerous areas in Germany, especially in southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland, an increased radon content has been measured. The Federal Office for Radiation Protection has developed a radon map of Germany for this purpose. The EU Directive 2013/59 / Euratom (Radiation Protection Basic Standards Directive) introduced reference values and the option for employees to have their workplace checked for radon exposure. In Germany, it was implemented in the Radiation Protection Act (Chapter 2 and Sections 124-132-9) and the amended Radiation Protection Ordinance (Part 4, Chapter 1, Sections 153–158). The new radon protection regulations for workplaces and new residential buildings have been binding since January 2019. The authorities should record extensive radon exposure by the end of 2020.
In Austria, the highest radon concentrations were measured in 1991 in the municipality of Umhausen in Tyrol. Umhausen has about 2300 inhabitants and is located in the Ötztal. The houses there were partly built on a rock fall made of granite gneiss . From this porous subsurface, the radon present in the rock penetrated unhindered into the unsealed cellar rooms, which were contaminated with up to 60,000 Becquerel of radon per cubic meter of air. The radon concentrations in the apartments in Umhausen have been systematically investigated since 1992. Since then, extensive measures to protect against radon have been taken on the buildings : new buildings, sealing of the floors in the basement, forced ventilation of the basements or relocations. Queries in the Austrian Health Information System (ÖGIS) have shown that the incidence of new lung cancers has fallen sharply since then. With the Austrian national radon project (ÖNRAP), radon pollution was investigated across the board. Austria also has a radiation protection law as the legal basis. Limit values for interiors were set in 2008. The Austrian Ministry of the Environment explains:
“For precautionary measures in radiation protection, the generally accepted model is used, which states that the risk of lung cancer increases uniformly (linearly) with the radon concentration. This means that an increased risk of lung cancer does not only occur above a certain value, but that a guideline or limit value only sensibly adapts the size of the risk to other existing risks. Achieving a guideline or limit value means taking a (socially) still accepted risk. So it makes perfect sense to use simple measures to reduce the radon concentration even if it is below the guide values. "
The aim of the Radon Action Plan 2012–2020 in Switzerland is to incorporate the new international recommendations into the Swiss strategy for protection against radon and thus to reduce the number of lung cancer cases caused by radon in buildings.
Radiation sickness of miners
In 1879, Walther Hesse (1846–1911) and Friedrich Hugo Härting published the study "Lung cancer, the mountain sickness in the Schneeberger pits". The pathologist Hesse was shocked by the poor health and low age that miners typically reached. Because the mountain sickness occurred among the miners in the Schneeberger Gruben (Saxon Ore Mountains), this particular form of bronchial carcinoma was named Schneeberger disease .
When Hesse's report appeared, radiation and the existence of radon were unknown. It was not until 1898 that Marie Curie-Skłodowska (1867–1934) and her husband Pierre Curie (1859–1906) discovered radium and created the term radioactivity . Since the autumn of 1898 Marie Curie suffered from inflammation of the fingertips, which were the first known symptoms of radiation sickness .
In the Joachimsthal mines, where silver and non-ferrous metal mining took place from the 16th to the 19th century , abundant uranium ore was mined in the 20th century . It was not until the Second World War that limit values were introduced in the ore mining of the Schneeberger and Joachimsthal mines. After the Second World War, uranium was extracted for the Soviet atomic bomb project and the emerging Soviet nuclear industry . Forced laborers served as workers. Initially these were German prisoners of war and non-displaced residents, after the February revolution of 1948 political prisoners imprisoned by the regime of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia , as well as civil workers who were forced to do so. Several “Czechoslovak gulags ” were set up in the area to accommodate these workers . In total, around 100,000 political prisoners and over 250,000 conscripts passed through the camps. Probably about half of them did not survive the mining industry. In 1964 uranium mining was stopped. We can only speculate about other victims who died from the radiation effects. Radon-containing springs discovered at the beginning of the 20th century in the course of mining established a health spa that is still important to the present day and the city's status as the oldest radium-brine spa in the world.
Wismut AG
The approximately 200,000 uranium miners at Wismut AG in the former Soviet occupation zone in East Germany were exposed to very high levels of radiation, particularly between 1946 and 1955, but also in later years. These exposures resulted from the inhalation of radon and its radioactive by-products, which are deposited to a considerable extent on the inhaled dust. The radiation exposure was given in the historical unit Working Level Month (WLM). The unit of measurement was introduced in the 1950s specifically for occupational safety in uranium mines in the USA in order to record radiation exposure resulting from radioactive contamination from radon and its decay products in the air we breathe. Around 9,000 workers at Wismut AG have developed lung cancer.
radium
Until the 1930s, radium compounds were not only considered to be relatively harmless, but also beneficial to health and were advertised as drugs for a variety of ailments or processed in products that glow in the dark. The processing took place without any protective measures.
Until the 1960s, radioactivity was often handled naively and carelessly. From 1940 to 1945 the Berliner Auergesellschaft , which was founded by Carl Auer von Welsbach (1858-1929, Osram ), produced a radioactive toothpaste called Doramad , which contained thorium-X and was sold internationally. It was advertised with the statement: “Its radioactive radiation increases the defenses of teeth and gums. The cells are charged with new vital energy, the destructive effectiveness of the bacteria is inhibited. ”The advertising message of shiny white teeth was given an ambiguous meaning. In addition, around 1930 there were bath products and eczema ointments of the “Thorium-X” brand. Radium toothpastes had also been added, such as the Kolynos toothpaste . From the First World War radioactivity was a symbol of modern achievements and was therefore considered “chic”. Radioactive substances were added to the mineral water as well as condoms or powder as cosmetic. Even chocolate fortified with radium was on the market. The toy manufacturer Märklin in the Swabian town of Göppingen tried out the sale of an X-ray machine for children. At parties of the upper class people “photographed” each other's bones for fun. A system called Trycho (from ancient Greek τριχο- tricho- , German 'concerning the hair' ) for epilation (hair removal) on the face and body was distributed in the USA by means of franchising . Thousands of women suffered from skin burns, ulcers and tumors as a result. Public awareness of the dangers of ionizing radiation only arose after the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki , which made these products unmarketable.
A radium industry emerged that used radium in creams, beverages, chocolates, toothpastes and soaps. It took a relatively long time until radium and its decay product, radon, were recognized as the cause of the damage from the effects observed. Radithor was marketed in the United States , a radioactive agent consisting of triple distilled water in which the radium isotopes 226 Ra and 228 Ra were dissolved so that it had an activity of at least one microcurie . It was only when the prominent American athlete Eben Byers , who, according to his own account, had consumed around 1,400 bottles of Radithor as medicine on the recommendation of his doctor, became seriously ill with cancer , lost numerous teeth and died a little later in great agony, came in 1932 strong doubts about the healing properties of radithor and radium waters.
Radium cures
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In 1908 there was a boom in the use of radioactive water for spa purposes. With the discovery of the springs in Oberschlema and Bad Brambach , the path to building radium baths , in which the healing properties of radium were trusted, was paved. During the cures, people bathed in radium water, served drinking cures with radium water and inhaled radon in emanatories . The baths were visited by tens of thousands each year; they were hoping for hormesis .
To this day, therapeutic applications are carried out in therapeutic baths and healing caves. Natural releases of radon from the ground are used. According to the Spa Day, the activity in the water must be at least 666 Bq / liter. The specification for the inhalation cures is at least 37,000 Bq / m³ air. This form of therapy is not scientifically recognized, and the potential risk of the associated radiation exposure has been criticized. The equivalent dose of a radon cure in Germany is given by the individual health resorts as around one to two millisieverts, depending on the location. 2010 Erlanger physicians after the (outdated) have LNT model (linear, no-threshold, German "linear non-threshold" ) deduced that five percent of all lung cancer deaths go back to Germany for radon. There are radon baths in Bad Gastein , Bad Hofgastein and Bad Zell in Austria, in Niška Banja in Serbia, in the radon revitalization bath (Krunkelbach pit) in Menzenschwand and in Bad Brambach, Bad Münster am Stein-Ebernburg , Bad Schlema, Bad Steben , Bad Schmiedeberg and Sibyllenbad in Germany, in Jáchymov in the Czech Republic, in Hévíz in Hungary, in Świeradów-Zdrój (Bad Flinsberg) in Poland, in Naretschen and in Kostenez in Bulgaria and on the island of Ischia in Italy . There are radon tunnels in Bad Kreuznach and Bad Gastein.
Luminous dials
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The danger posed by radium was recognized in the early 1920s and was first described in 1924 by the New York dentist and oral surgeon Theodor Blum (1883–1962). It was particularly evident in the watch industry, where it was used for luminous dials. He published an article on the clinical picture of the so-called radium jaw ( English radium jaw ). He observed this disease in patients who, working as dial painters, came into contact with luminous paint, the composition of which was similar to Radiomir , a luminous substance invented in 1914 that consists of a mixture of zinc sulfide and radium bromide . While painting, they brought the tip of the brush, which was loaded with the phosphor, into the desired pointed shape with their lips, and this is how the radioactive radium entered their bodies. In the USA and Canada alone, around 4,000 women workers have been employed in it over the years. In retrospect, the factory workers were called Radium Girls . They also played with the paint and painted their fingernails, teeth and faces. This made them glow at night to the surprise of their significant other.
After Harrison Stanford Martland (1883–1954), chief medical examiner in Essex County , had detected the radioactive noble gas radon (a decay product of radium) in the breath of the Radium Girls , he turned to Charles Norris (1867–1935) and Alexander Oscar Gettler (1883-1968). In 1928, Gettler succeeded in detecting a high concentration of radium in the bones of Amelia Maggia, one of the young women, even five years after her death. In 1931 a method for determining the radium dosage using a film dosimeter was developed. A standard preparation acts for a defined time through a hardwood cube on an X-ray film, which is blackened as a result. For a long time, the cube minute was an important unit for the dosage of radium. It was calibrated using ionometric measurements. The radiologists Hermann Georg Holthusen (1886–1971) and Anna Hamann (1894–1969) found the intensity of 0.045 r / min as the calibration value in 1932/1935. The calibration film receives the γ-radiation dose of 0.045 r every minute through the wooden cube from the preparation of 13.33 mg. In 1933 the physicist Robley D. Evans (1907–1995) made the first measurements of radon and radium in the excretions of workers. On this basis, the National Bureau of Standards , the forerunner of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), set the limit values for radium at 0.1 microcurie (about 3.7 kilobecquerel ).
A Radium Action Plan 2015–2019 is intended to solve the problem of radiological contaminated sites in Switzerland, which up until the 1960s mainly existed in the Jura arc due to the use of radium luminous paint in the watch industry .
In France in 1932, a cosmetic line called Tho-Radia was created , which contained both thorium and radium and lasted until the 1960s.
Other terrestrial radiation
The terrestrial radiation is ubiquitous on Earth radiation emitted by radionuclides is caused in the ground that billions of years ago by the stellar nucleosynthesis were formed and because of their long half-lives are not yet disintegrated. Terrestrial radiation is caused by natural radionuclides that are naturally present in the ground, in rocks, in the hydrosphere and in the earth's atmosphere . The natural radionuclides can be divided into cosmogenic and primordial nuclides . The cosmogenic nuclides do not make a significant contribution to the terrestrial ambient radiation on the earth's surface. The sources of terrestrial radiation are the natural radioactive nuclides contained in the uppermost layers of the earth, in water and in the air. This includes in particular
- Thorium -232 (half-life 14 billion years),
- Uranium -238 (half-life 4.4 billion years),
- Uranium-235 (half-life 0.7 billion years) and
- Potassium -40 (half-life 1.3 billion years).
Mining and extraction of fuels
According to the World Nuclear Association , coal in all deposits contains traces of various radioactive substances, especially radon, uranium and thorium. When coal is extracted, especially from open-cast mines, through exhaust gases from power stations or through the power station ash, these substances are released and contribute to terrestrial radiation exposure through their exposure path .
In December 2009 it became known that millions of tons of radioactive residues are produced annually in the production of oil and natural gas , the majority of which are disposed of without evidence and improperly, including 226 radium and 210 polonium . The specific activity of the waste is between 0.1 and 15,000 Becquerel per gram. In Germany, according to the Radiation Protection Ordinance of 2001 , the material already requires monitoring from one Becquerel per gram and must be disposed of separately. The implementation of this regulation has been left to the responsibility of the industry; for decades it disposed of the waste carelessly and improperly.
Building material
Every building material contains traces of natural radioactive substances, in particular 238 uranium, 232 thorium and their decay products and 40 potassium. Solidification and effluent rocks such as granite , tuff and pumice have a higher radioactivity content. In contrast, sand, gravel , limestone and natural gypsum ( calcium sulfate dihydrate) contain only small amounts of radioactivity. The European Union's Activity Concentration Index (ACI), which was developed in 1999, can be used to assess radiation exposure from building materials . It replaced the Leningrad empirical formula , which was used in 1971 in Leningrad (Saint Petersburg) to determine how much radiation exposure through building materials is permissible for humans. The ACI is calculated from the sum of the weighted activities of 40 potassium, 226 radium and 232 thorium. The weighting takes into account the relative harmfulness for humans. According to official recommendations, building materials with a European ACI value of over "1" should not be used in large quantities.
Glazes
For the uranium glaze on ceramic tiles, pigments containing uranium are used for coloring (red, yellow, brown) , with 2 mg uranium per cm² being allowed. Between 1900 and 1943, uranium-containing ceramics were produced in large quantities in the USA, but also in Germany and Austria. It is estimated that between 1924 and 1943, between 1924 and 1943, 50–150 tons of uranium (V, VI) oxide were used annually in the manufacture of uranium-containing glazes. In 1943, the US government imposed a ban on the civil use of materials containing uranium, which was in effect until 1958. From 1958, the US government, and from 1969 also the United States Atomic Energy Commission, sold depleted uranium in the form of uranium (VI) fluoride for civil use. In Germany, ceramics with a glaze containing uranium were manufactured by the Rosenthal porcelain factory, among others , and were available in stores until the early 1980s. Ceramics with uranium glaze should only be used as collector's items and not for everyday use because of the possible abrasion.
ODL measuring network
The measuring network of the Federal Office for Radiation Protection routinely measures natural radiation exposure. The measured local dose rate (ODL) is given in the unit microsievert per hour (μSv / h). This corresponds to the gamma radiation from the environment per hour at a certain location. The natural ODL in Germany is approximately between 0.05 and 0.18 μSv / h, depending on local conditions. The ODL measuring network, which has been working since 1973, now consists of 1,800 fixed, automatically working measuring points and provides an early warning function to quickly detect increased radiation from radioactive substances in the air in Germany. Since 2008, spectroscopic probes have also been used that can determine the contribution of artificial radionuclides in addition to the local dose rate. In addition to the ODL measuring network of the Federal Office for Radiation Protection, there are other federal measuring networks at the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency and the Federal Institute for Hydrology , with which the gamma radiation in water is measured, the German Weather Service uses aerosol collectors to measure airborne activity. In order to monitor the nuclear facilities , the responsible federal states operate their own ODL measuring networks. The data from these measurement networks are automatically entered into the Integrated Measurement and Information System (IMIS) and used there to analyze the current situation.
Many countries operate their own ODL measurement networks to protect the population. In Europe, this data is collected and published on the EURDEP platform of the European Atomic Energy Community . The basis for the European measuring networks are Articles 35 and 37 of the Euratom Treaty .
Radionuclides in Medicine
The nuclear medicine is the application of open radionuclides for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes ( radionuclide ). It also includes the use of other radioactive substances and nuclear physical methods for functional and localization diagnostics. George de Hevesy (1885–1966) lived in sublet and in 1923 suspected that his landlady was offering him pudding that he had not eaten again the following week. He mixed a small amount of a radioactive isotope with the leftover food. When she served him a pudding a week later, he was able to detect radioactivity in a sample of the casserole. When he showed his landlady with it, she gave him notice immediately. The method used made him the father of nuclear medicine . It has established itself as a tracer method that is still used in nuclear medicine diagnostics today. A small amount of a radioactive substance, its distribution in the organism and its path through the human body can be followed from the outside. This provides information about various metabolic functions of the body. Increasing radiation protection is achieved through continuous further development of radionuclides. For example, the mercury compounds 203 chloro-merodrin and 197 chloro-merodrin were abandoned again in the 1960s because substances had been developed that allowed a higher yield of photons with lower radiation exposure . Beta emitters such as 131 I, 90 Y are used in radionuclide therapy . In nuclear medicine diagnostics, the β + emitters 18 F, 11 C, 13 N and 15 O are used in positron emission tomography (PET) as radioactive tracers . In the development of radiopharmaceuticals that operates continuously (isotopically labeled drug) Radiopharmaceuticals .
Residues from radiopharmaceuticals, such as empty syringes and contaminated patient residues from the toilet, shower and washing water, are collected in tanks and stored there until they can be safely pumped into the sewer system. The storage time depends on the half-life and ranges from a few weeks to a few months, depending on the radionuclide. Since 2001, the specific radioactivity in the waste containers has been recorded in release measuring stations in accordance with Section 29 of the Radiation Protection Ordinance and the time for release is calculated automatically. This requires measurements of the sample activity in Bq / g and the surface contamination in Bq / cm². In addition, the behavior of the patients after their discharge from the clinic is prescribed. To protect staff, syringe filling systems , borehole measuring stations for the nuclide-specific measurement of γ-radiating individual samples with low activity and small volume, a lift system in the measuring chamber to reduce radiation exposure when handling highly active samples, probe measuring stations , ILP measuring stations ( English Isolated Limb Perfusion ' isolated limb perfusion ' ) to monitor activity with one or more detectors during the operation and to report a leak to the surgical oncologist .
Radioiodine therapy
The radioiodine therapy (RIT) is a nuclear medical therapy method for the treatment of thyroid autonomy , of Graves' disease , the thyroid enlargement , and certain forms of thyroid cancer . The radioactive iodine - isotope 131 iodine is used, a predominantly beta emitter with a half-life of eight days, which is only stored in thyroid cells in the human body . In 1942, Saul Hertz (1905–1950) of the Massachusetts General Hospital and the physicist Arthur Roberts published their report on the first radioiodine therapy (1941) for Graves' disease, at that time still predominantly with the isotope 130 iodine with a half-life of 12.4 hours. At the same time, Joseph Gilbert Hamilton (1907–1957) and John Hundale Lawrence (1904–1991) carried out the first therapy with 131 iodine - the isotope that is still used today.
In many countries, radioiodine therapy is subject to special legal regulations and in Germany may only be carried out as an inpatient. There are around 120 therapy facilities in Germany (as of 2014), in which around 50,000 treatments are carried out annually. In Germany, the minimum length of stay on the therapy ward is 48 hours. The discharge depends on the residual activity remaining in the body. In 1999 the limit value for residual activity was increased. The dose rate must not exceed 3.5 µSv per hour at a distance of 2 meters from the patient , which means that a radiation exposure of 1 mSv is not exceeded within a year at a distance of 2 meters. This corresponds to a residual activity of around 250 MBq . Similar regulations apply in Austria.
In Switzerland, radiation exposure may not exceed a maximum of 1 mSv per year and, for the patient's relatives, a maximum of 5 mSv per year. After discharge after radioiodine therapy, a dose rate of at most 5 µSv per hour at a distance of 1 meter is permissible, which corresponds to a residual activity of around 150 MBq. In the event of early discharge, this must be reported to the supervisory authority up to a dose rate of 17.5 µSv / h, and approval must be obtained from 17.5 µSv / h. If the patient is transferred to another ward, the responsible radiation protection officer must ensure that appropriate radiation protection measures are taken there, for example a temporary control area is set up.
Scintigraphy
The scintigraphy is a method of investigation in the field of nuclear medicine: The patient is injected while low-level radioactive substances as drugs for diagnostic purposes. This includes the bone scan , the thyroid scintigraphy , the octreotide -Szintigrafie and as a further development of the method, single photon emission computed tomography ( English Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) ). For example, in myocardial scintigraphy to diagnose the blood flow and function of the heart muscle (myocardium) 201 Tl thallium (I) chloride , technetium compounds ( 99m Tc tracer, 99m technetium tetrofosmin ), PET tracers (each with a radiation exposure of 1100 MBq with 15 O water , 555 MBq with 13 N ammonia or 1850 MBq with 82 Rb rubidium chloride ). The examination with 74 MBq 201 thallium chloride causes radiation exposure of around 16 mSv (effective equivalent dose), the examination with 740 MBq 99m technetium MIBI of around 7 mSv. Metastable 99m Tc is by far the most important nuclide used as a tracer for scintigraphic studies due to its short half-life, the emitted gamma radiation with an energy of 140 keV and its ability to attach to many active biomolecules. After the examination, most of it is excreted. The remaining 99m Tc quickly decays into 99 Tc with a 6-hour half-life . This has a long half-life of 212,000 years and, because of the relatively soft beta radiation that is released when it decays, only contributes to a small additional radiation exposure over the remaining lifetime. In the United States alone, around seven million single doses of 99m Tc are administered each year for diagnostic purposes .
To reduce radiation exposure, the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology (ASNC) issued dosage recommendations in 2010. With 13 N ammonia, 2.4 mSv (effective dose) are obtained, with 15 O water 2.5 mSv, with 18 F fluorodeoxyglucose 7 mSv and with 82 Rb rubidium chloride 13.5 mSv. By following these recommendations, a reduction in the average radiation exposure to ≤ 9 mSv is expected. The ordinance on radioactive medicinal products or medicinal products treated with ionizing radiation ( Section 2 AMRadV) regulates the licensing procedures for the marketability of radioactive medicinal products.
Brachytherapy
By means of brachytherapy , an enclosed radioactive radiation source is placed within or in the immediate vicinity of the area to be irradiated in the body for cancer therapy, for example prostate cancer . Often afterloading brachytherapy is combined with teletherapy , irradiation from outside and from a greater distance than brachytherapy. It is not counted among the nuclear medicine procedures, although like these it uses the radiation emitted by radionuclides. After the initial interest in brachytherapy at the beginning of the 20th century, its use declined in the middle of the 20th century because of the radiation exposure for doctors when handling the radiation sources manually. It was not until the development of remote-controlled afterloading systems and the use of new radiation sources in the 1950s and 1960s that the risk of unnecessary radiation exposure for doctor and patient was reduced. In the afterloading procedure, an empty, tubular applicator is pushed into the target volume (for example the uterus ) before the actual therapy and, after checking the position, is loaded with a radioactive preparation. The specimen is at the tip of a steel wire that is gradually pulled back and forth under computer control. After the pre-calculated time, the source is pulled back into a safe and the applicator is removed. The procedure is used, among other things, for breast cancer , bronchial carcinoma or floor cancer . Beta emitters such as 90 Sr or 106 Ru or 192 Ir are used. As a precautionary measure, patients receiving permanent brachytherapy are advised not to have young children immediately after treatment and not to be in the vicinity of pregnant women, as in the case of permanent brachytherapy after treatment, weakly dosed radioactive sources (seeds) im Bodies remain. This is intended to protect the particularly radiation-sensitive tissues of a fetus or infant.
Thorium as a drug and X-ray contrast medium
Radioactive thorium was used in the 1950s and 60s (also in children) against tuberculosis and other benign diseases, with serious consequences (see Peteosthor ). A stabilized suspension of colloidal thorium (IV) oxide , which was co-developed by António Egas Moniz (1874–1954), was sold to several million worldwide under the trade name Thorotrast as an X-ray contrast medium for angiography until it was banned in the mid-1950s Patient used. It accumulates in the reticulohistiocytic system and can lead to cancer due to locally increased radiation exposure. The same applies to bile duct carcinoma and angiosarcoma of the liver, two rare liver cancers . Likewise, carcinomas of the paranasal sinuses after administration of Thorotrast described. Typically, the disease occurs 30–35 years after exposure. The biological half-life is about 400 years. The largest study in this regard was carried out in Germany in 2004; it showed the particularly high mortality rate of the exposed patients. In the median was life expectancy is shorter than in the comparison group in a seventy-year period under 14 years old.
Nuclear weapons and nuclear energy
Radiation effects of an atomic bomb attack and consequences for radiation protection
After the US atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945 - in addition to the 100,000 immediate victims - another 130,000 people died from the radiation effects by the end of 1945. In some, the so-called walking ghost phase occurred, an acute radiation sickness caused by a high equivalent dose of 6 to 20 Sievert after a fatal whole-body dose. The phase describes the period of apparent recovery of a patient between the occurrence of the first severe symptoms and the inevitable subsequent death. In the following years there were several deaths from radiation-induced diseases. The radiation-damaged survivors are known in Japan as hibakusha ( Japanese 被 爆 者 , `` explosion victims '' ) and are cautiously estimated at around 100,000.
In order to investigate the long-term effects of radiation among the survivors after these atomic bombs were dropped, the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC, German for 'Commission for atomic bomb personal injury') was founded; this was done by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences on the order of US President Harry S. Truman . In 1975 the ABCC was replaced by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF). Organizations such as the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR, German `` Committee of the United Nations on the Effects of Atomic Radiation '' ), which was founded in 1955, and the National Academy analyze the atomic bomb victims that have been examined and, in some cases, have been medically accompanied for decades of Sciences - Advisory Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR Committee, founded in 1972, German 'Advisory Committee of the National Academy of Sciences for the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation ' ) investigates the effects of radiation exposure on humans. They determine the course of the death rate depending on the age of the radiation victims compared to the spontaneous rate and also the dose-dependency of the number of additional deaths. So far, 26 UNSCEAR reports have been published online, most recently in 2017 on the effects of the reactor accident in Fukushima.
From 1949 at the latest, the Americans felt increasingly threatened by the possibility of a nuclear war with the Soviet Union and looked for ways to survive a nuclear attack. The US Federal Civil Defense Administration (USFCDA) was established by the government to educate the public on how to prepare for such an attack. 1951 originated in the United States with the support of this authority in cases an educational film for children titled Duck and Cover ( German , duck and cover ' ), which demonstrated a turtle how to deal with a jacket, tablecloths, or even a newspaper in front should adequately protect the immediate consequences of an atomic bomb explosion.
Aware that the existing medical capacities would not be sufficient in an emergency, the focus was on dentists who could either assist the doctors in an emergency or, if necessary, provide help independently. In order to mobilize the profession with the help of a prominent representative, the dentist Russell Welford Bunting (1881–1962), Dean of the University of Michigan Dental School, was won over as a dental advisor for the USFCDA in July 1951 .
The American physicist Karl Ziegler Morgan (1907–1999) was one of the founders of radiation health physics. Later in life, after a long career in the Manhattan Project and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), he became a critic of nuclear power and nuclear weapons production. Morgan was director of Health Physics at ORNL from the late 1940s until his retirement in 1972. In 1955 he became the first president of the Health Physics Society and was editor of Health Physics magazine from 1955 to 1977.
Nuclear shelters should offer protection for a longer, defined period of time. Corresponding shelters must be completely self-sufficient for a long time due to the peculiarities of nuclear warfare. In particular because of the radioactive contamination of the surrounding area, such a facility must be able to survive for a few weeks. In 1959, the top secret construction work for a government bunker in the Ahr Valley began in Germany . In June 1964, 144 test subjects spent six days trying to survive in a civilian nuclear bunker. This Dortmund bunker was built during the Second World War and at the beginning of the 1960s was converted into a nuclear weapon safe building for a lot of money. However, building a bunker for millions of German citizens would not be manageable at all. In 1964, the Swiss Army created around 7,800 nuclear protection shelters . Especially in the USA, but also in Europe, citizens built private nuclear bunkers in their front gardens on their own initiative. These construction measures were largely kept secret because the owners feared that in the event of a crisis, third parties could seize the bunker.
Fallout and contamination
On July 16, 1945, the first atomic bomb test took place near the city of Alamogordo ( New Mexico , USA) . As a result of the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests carried out by France, Great Britain and China in addition to the United States and the Soviet Union, the earth's atmosphere was increasingly contaminated with fission products from these tests from the 1950s onwards. The fallout ( English , Fallout ' ) landed on the surface and got into plants and feed in foods of animal origin. Ultimately, they found their way into the human body and could also be detected as strontium-90 in bones and teeth. The radioactivity in the area was measured with a gammascope , as was shown in 1954 at the air raid protection equipment exhibition in Bad Godesberg. Around 180 tests were carried out in 1962 alone. The level of radioactive contamination in food sparked global protests in the early 1960s.
During the Second World War and the Cold War , over a period of more than 50 years, the production of plutonium for US nuclear weapons took place at Hanford Site . The plutonium of the first plutonium atomic bomb, Fat Man , also comes from there. Hanford is considered to be the most radioactively contaminated place in the Western Hemisphere. A total of 110,000 tons of nuclear fuel were produced there. In 1948 a radioactive cloud emerged from the facility. The portion of 131 I alone was 5500 curies . Most of Hanford's reactors were shut down in the 1960s; however, no disposal or decontamination was carried out. After preparatory work, the largest decontamination campaign in the world has been carried out in Hanford since 2001 in order to safely dispose of radioactive and toxic waste. In 2006, around 11,000 workers were still busy cleaning up contaminated buildings and floors in order to reduce the radiation intensity on the site to an acceptable level. These measures are expected to last until 2052. It is estimated that more than four million liters of radioactive fluid have leaked from the storage containers.
Only after the two great powers (1963 to a test ban treaty English Partial Test Ban Treaty , Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water ' ) had agreed, allowed the only underground nuclear tests, the radioactivity levels decreased gradually in food from. Shields Warren (1896–1980), one of the authors of a report on the effects of the atomic bombs dropped on Japan, was criticized for playing down the effects of the residual radiation in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but later warned of the dangers of fallout. With dispersion refers to the spread of radioactivity in the context of the different meteorological situation. A model test was carried out in 2008.
The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons ( english International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) ) is an international coalition of non-governmental organizations for the abolition of nuclear weapons through a binding international treaty - a Nuclear Weapons Convention - begins. ICAN was at the conference of the 2007 Non-Proliferation Treaty in Vienna by the IPPNW ( English International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War , International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War ' ) was established and other organizations launched and started in twelve countries. 468 organizations in 101 countries are now participating in the campaign (as of 2017). ICAN received the 2017 Nobel Peace Prize .
Radio protectors
A radio protector is a drug that, once administered , is intended to selectively protect healthy cells from the toxic effects of ionizing radiation . The first work with radio protectors began as part of the Manhattan Project , a military research project to develop and build an atomic bomb .
Almost all of the iodine absorbed by the body is stored in the thyroid gland with a biological half-life of around 120 days. If the iodine is radioactive ( 131 I), it can irradiate and damage the thyroid gland in high doses during this time. Since the thyroid gland only absorbs a limited amount of iodine, preventive non-radioactive iodine can lead to iodine blockage . Potassium iodide in tablet form (colloquially "iodine tablets") reduces the absorption of radioactive iodine in the thyroid by a factor of 90 and more and thus serves as a radio protector. All other radiation damage remains unaffected by taking iodine tablets. To ensure the “supply of the population with drugs containing potassium iodide in the event of radiological events”, the Potassium Iodide Ordinance (KIV) was enacted in Germany in 2003 ( Section 1 , Paragraph 1 KIV). Potassium iodide is usually stored in communities in the vicinity of nuclear facilities in order to be given out to the population in the event of a disaster. People over 45 years of age should not take iodine tablets because the risk of side effects would be higher than the risk of developing thyroid cancer later. In Switzerland, as a precaution, tablets have been distributed to the population every five years in the vicinity of nuclear power plants (previously 20 km, since 2014 50 km). In Austria there has been an extensive supply of iodine tablets in pharmacies, kindergartens, schools, in the army and in the so-called federal reserve since 2002 .
Thanks to the protective function of radio protectors can radiation dose at a against malignant tumors ( cancer -related) radiation increased and the effectiveness of the therapy can be increased. There are also radiosensitizers that increase the sensitivity of malignant tumor cells to ionizing radiation. As early as 1921, the German radiologist Hermann Holthusen (1886–1971) described that oxygen increases the sensitivity of cells.
Nuclear accidents and disasters
The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), founded in 1957 as a sub-organization of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), bundles the scientific and financial resources of the nuclear research programs of the participating countries. It operates various databases, it also manages the database for interference in nuclear plants ( International Reporting System for Operating Experience , "IRS" or "IAEA / NEA Incident Reporting System" called) of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA english International Atomic Energy Agency , IAEA). The IAEA records and examines radiation accidents that have occurred worldwide and are related to nuclear medicine procedures and the disposal of related substances.
The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES, German International Assessment Scale for Nuclear and Radiological Events ) is a scale for safety-relevant events, in particular incidents and nuclear accidents in nuclear facilities . It was drawn up by an international group of experts that was officially introduced in 1990 by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nuclear energy agency. The aim of the scale is to quickly inform the public about the safety-related significance of an event using a comprehensible classification of the events.
After the end of use, the proper disposal of the still high activity is of the greatest importance. Improper scrapping of the radionuclide cobalt-60 , which is used in cobalt cannons for radiation therapy , has caused serious radiation accidents , such as in 1983 in Ciudad Juárez (Mexico), in 1987 in the Goiânia accident (Brazil), in 2000 in the nuclear accident in Samut Prakan (Thailand) or in Mayapuri (India) 2010.
The linear accelerator Therac-25 was from 1982 to 1985 in eleven copies of the Canadian Atomic Energy of Canada Limited built (AECL) and installed in hospitals in the US and Canada. A serious malfunction was possible due to software errors and inadequate quality assurance , which from June 1985 to 1987 cost the lives of three patients and seriously injured three others before suitable countermeasures were taken. The radiation exposure in the six cases was subsequently estimated at 40 to 200 Gray ; normal treatment is a dose less than 2 gray.
Around 1990 there were still around a hundred Cobalt devices in use in Germany. In the meantime, a switch to electron linear accelerators has been carried out and the last cobalt cannon was shut down in 2000.
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The Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011 confirmed the need for a corresponding security management , deriving from safety indicators regarding the determined frequencies of interference and improper action by the staff, thus the human factor ( English Human Factors ). The Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan (NSC, German " Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan " ; Japanese 原子 力 安全 委員会genshiryoku anzen iinkai ) was a body of scientists who advised the Japanese government on matters relating to the safety of nuclear facilities . The Commission was set up in 1978, but was disbanded after the Fukushima nuclear disaster on 19 September 2012, and by the Nuclear Regulation Authority ( Japanese 力規制原子委員会 , Nuclear Power Regulatory Committee ' , English Nuclear Regulation Authority ) replaced. It is an independent agency ( gaikyoku , "Foreign Office") of the Japanese Ministry of the Environment that regulates and monitors the safety of Japanese nuclear power plants and related facilities.
As a result of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986, the first time the term was the "by the IAEA in 1991 safety culture " ( English safety culture dominated) to draw attention to the importance of human and organizational matters for the safe operation of nuclear power plants.
After this nuclear catastrophe in Germany, the sand was disposed of from sandboxes in children's playgrounds and replaced with unpolluted sand in order to protect children who were particularly at risk from radioactivity. Some families temporarily left Germany to avoid the fallout. In 1987, the year after Chernobyl, infant mortality was significantly increased by 5%. In total, 316 more newborns died this year than statistically expected. In Germany, the cesium 137 inventories from the Chernobyl nuclear disaster decrease by 2-3% in soil and food every year; However, the contamination of game and mushrooms was still comparatively high in 2015, especially in Bavaria; The limit values are exceeded in not a few cases with game , especially with wild boar meat . However, controls in this regard are inadequate.
“Especially with wild boars in southern Bavaria, one finds a very high level of radioactive contamination of over 10,000 Becquerel / kg. The limit is 600 Becquerel / kg. For this reason, the Bavarian Consumer Center advises not to consume wild boar from the Bavarian Forest and south of the Danube regions too often. Anyone who purchases wild boar from the hunter should ask for the measurement protocol. "
Marine dumping of radioactive waste
In the years 1969–1982, conditioned low and medium level radioactive waste was dumped under the supervision of the NEA ( Nuclear Energy Agency ) in accordance with the provisions of the European Agreement on the Prevention of Marine Pollution from the Dumping of Litter of All Kinds the organization for economic cooperation and development ( english organization for economic Co-operation and development , OECD) disposed of in the Atlantic in about 4000 m depth. This was done jointly by several European countries. Since 1993, the disposal of radioactive waste in the oceans has been banned by international treaties. For decades, this nuclear waste dump was little known to the public until Greenpeace denounced it in the 1980s .
Repository for heat-generating radioactive waste
Since the commissioning of the first commercial nuclear power plants (USA 1956, Germany 1962), various repository concepts for radioactive substances have been proposed in the following decades , among which only storage in deep geological formations appeared to be safe and feasible within a reasonable period of time and was pursued. Because of the large activity of short-lived fission products consumed are fuel initially handled under water, they are in a number of years spent fuel kept. On the one hand, the water serves for cooling; on the other hand, the water shields a large part of the emitted radiation. This is followed by either reprocessing or interim storage for decades . Waste from reprocessing must also be temporarily stored until the heat generation has decreased to such an extent that final storage is possible. Castors are special containers for storing and transporting highly radioactive materials . Their maximum permissible dose rate is 0.35 mSv / h, of which a maximum of 0.25 mSv / h is caused by neutron radiation . The safety of these transport containers has been discussed every three years at the International Symposium on the Packaging and Transportation of Radioactive Materials PATRAM since 1980 .
After various attempts, such as the Gorleben nuclear waste storage facility or the Asse mine , between 1999 and 2002 a working group for the selection process for repository sites (AkEnd) developed recommendations for a new selection process for repository sites. In Germany, the location selection law was passed in 2013 and the law on the further development of the location search on March 23, 2017 . A suitable location should be sought throughout Germany and found by 2031. Basically, the rock types crystalline (granite), salt or clay are possible for a repository site. The “ideal” location will not exist. The search is for the "best possible" location. Mining areas and areas where volcanoes were active or at risk of earthquakes are excluded. Internationally, experts advocate storage in rock layers several hundred meters below the surface of the earth. For this purpose, a repository mine will be built and the waste will be stored. Then it is permanently locked. Geological and technical barriers that enclose the waste should protect them safely for thousands of years. For example, 300 meters of rock should separate the repository from the earth's surface. It has to be surrounded by a 100 meter thick layer of granite, salt or clay. The first waste is not expected to be stored before 2050.
The Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management (BfE) started its work on September 1, 2014. The field of activity includes tasks relating to nuclear safety, nuclear waste disposal safety, the site selection process including research in these areas and later further tasks in the field of approval and supervision of repositories.
In the USA, Yucca Mountain was initially selected as the final repository, but this project was temporarily stopped in February 2009. Yucca Mountain was the starting point for an investigation into atomic semiotics.
Atomic semiotics
The operation of nuclear power plants and other nuclear facilities produces quantities of radioactive substances whose health effects can be fatal for thousands of years. There is no institution that is able to obtain the necessary knowledge about the dangers over such periods of time and to ensure that relevant warnings about the dangers of nuclear waste in nuclear repositories in the distant future will be understood by posterity. Even the capsules of the radionuclide cobalt-60 ( see above ) with corresponding warning notices went unnoticed a few years ago, which after improper disposal led to the opening of these capsules and causing fatal consequences. The time dimensions exceed the previous human standards. One thinks of the cuneiform script, which is only about 5000 years old (about 150 generations ago), which can only be understood after long research and only by experts. In the USA, research into the development of atomic semiotics began in 1981; in German-speaking countries, Roland Posner (* 1942) from the Department of Semiotics at the Technical University of Berlin worked on this in 1982/83. For the USA, the time horizon for corresponding warning markings was set at 10,000 years, later, as in Germany, for a period of one million years, which would correspond to around 30,000 (human) generations. To date, no satisfactory solution to the problem has been found.
Radiation protection during flights
Cosmic radiation
In 1912 Victor Franz Hess (1883–1964) discovered (secondary) cosmic rays with the help of balloon flights in the earth's atmosphere . For this he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936 . He too was one of the "martyrs" of early radiation research and had to undergo a thumb amputation and an operation on the larynx due to radium burns . In the USA and the Soviet Union before 1960 balloon rides at heights of up to about 30 km with subsequent parachute jumps from the stratosphere were undertaken in order to investigate the stresses to which humans are exposed in space, among other things by cosmic rays. The American projects Manhigh and Excelsior with Joseph Kittinger (* 1928) became particularly well known, but the Soviet jumper Yevgeny Andrejew (1926–2000) also set new records.
High-energy radiation from space is much more pronounced at high altitudes than at sea level. The radiation exposure for flight personnel and air travelers is therefore increased. The International Commission on Radiological Protection ( English International Commission on Radiological Protection , ICRP) presented recommendations on dose limits that have been endorsed by the EU and 2001 in the German Radiation Protection Ordinance 1996th Especially when flying in the polar regions or over the Polar route which is radiation exposure particularly high. The mean effective annual dose for aviation personnel was 1.9 mSv in 2015 and 2.0 mSv in 2016. The highest annual personal dose value was 5.7 mSv in 2015, and 6.0 mSv in 2016. The collective dose for 2015 was about 76 person-Sv. In terms of the collective dose and the mean annual dose, this means that flight personnel are among the occupational groups most exposed to radiation in Germany. This group also includes frequent flyer , with Thomas Stuker the "record" - even on radiation exposure - holding by until the summer of 2011 with 5,900 flights, the 10-million-mile limit in 1982 MileagePlus of United Airlines has reached. It has since passed the 18 million mile mark in 2017.
At the University of Siegen and the Helmholtz Zentrum München , the program was EPCARD ( English European Program Package for the Calculation of Aviation Route Dose , European software package to determine the exposure of passengers and flight personnel to cosmic radiation ' ) developed with the aid of any Flight routes and flight profiles the dose from all components of the natural penetrating cosmic rays - also online - can be calculated.
Radiation protection in space
During the first manned space flights up to the first moon landing and the construction of the International Space Station (ISS), radiation protection had to be considered. Space suits for outboard work are coated on the outside with aluminum , which largely protects against cosmic rays. The largest international research project to determine the effective dose or the effective dose equivalent was the Matryoshka experiment in 2010, which was named after the matryoshkas , the Russian nestable wooden dolls of the same name, as a human-sized phantom that can be dismantled into slices is used. As part of Matryoshka, an anthropomorphic {tissue equivalent} phantom was exposed on the outside of the space station for the first time in order to simulate an astronaut doing an outboard mission ("space walk") and to determine his radiation exposure . The microelectronics in satellites must also be protected from radiation.
Japanese scientists from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) have discovered a huge cave with their lunar probe Kaguya on the moon, which could offer astronauts protection from dangerous radiation during future moon landings, especially during a planned stopover on a mission to Mars.
As part of a manned Mars mission , space travelers must be protected from cosmic rays. During the Curiosity mission to Mars , a Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) was used to measure radiation exposure. The determined radiation exposure of 1.8 millisievert per day resulted mainly from the permanently present high-energy galactic particle radiation. The radiation emanating from the sun, on the other hand, was responsible for only around three to five percent of the measured radiation values during the flight from Curiosity to Mars. On the way to Mars, the RAD instrument was able to detect a total of five major radiation events that were caused by solar flares . To protect the astronauts, a plasma bubble will in future surround the spaceship as an energy shield , and its magnetic field will ensure that the crew is protected from cosmic radiation. This would avoid the conventionally designed radiation protection shield, several centimeters thick and correspondingly heavy. In the Space Radiation Superconducting Shield (SR2S, German 'Superconducting shield against cosmic radiation' ) project, which was completed in December 2015, magnesium diboride was found to be a useful material to generate a suitable magnetic force field .
Development of metrological fundamentals of radiation protection
Dosimeter
Dosimeters are measuring devices for measuring the radiation dose - as absorbed dose or equivalent dose - and are therefore an important cornerstone in ensuring radiation protection.
Film dosimeter
At the American Roentgen Ray Society meeting in October 1907, Rome Vernon Wagner , an X-ray tube manufacturer, reported that he had started carrying a photographic plate in his pocket and developing it every evening. In this way, he could determine how much radiation he was exposed to. This was the forerunner of the film dosimeter . His efforts came too late because he had already developed cancer and died six months after the conference.
In the 1920s, film dosimetry was introduced for routine personnel monitoring, in which the physical chemist John Eggert (1891–1973) played a key role. It has been gradually improved since then, in particular the evaluation technology has been automated since the 1960s. At the same time, Hermann Joseph Muller (1890–1967) discovered mutations as genetic consequences of X-rays, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1946. During the same period, the X-ray (R) was introduced as a unit for the quantitative measurement of radiation exposure.
A film dosimeter is divided into several segments. In each segment, the light- or radiation-sensitive film inside is surrounded by copper and lead layers of different thicknesses. Depending on the degree of penetration of the radiation, the respective segment is not blackened at all or blackened to a different extent. The effect of the radiation absorbed in the course of the measurement time adds up, and the radiation dose can be deduced from the blackening. There are guidelines for the evaluation. The ones for Germany were issued in 1994 and were last updated on December 8, 2003.
Particle and quantum detectors
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With the invention of the counter tube by Geiger in 1913, from which the Geiger-Müller counter tube emerged in 1928 - named after the physicists Hans Geiger (1882–1945) and Walther Müller (1905–1979) - the individual particles or quanta could be ionized Detect and measure radiation. Detectors such as proportional counters or scintillation counters , which are not only used for “counting” but also for measuring energy and for differentiating between types of radiation, also became important for radiation protection. The scintillation measurement is one of the oldest measurement methods for the detection of ionizing radiation or X-rays; Originally a zinc sulfide screen was held in the beam path and the scintillation events were either counted as flashes or, in the case of X-ray diagnostics, viewed as an image. A scintillation counter known as a spinariscope was developed in 1903 by William Crookes (1832-1919) and used by Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) to study the scattering of α-particles on atomic nuclei.
Thermoluminescence dosimeter
As early as 1950, lithium fluoride was proposed in the USA by Farrington Daniels (1889–1972), Charles A. Boyd and Donald F. Saunders (1924–2013) for solid-state dosimetry using a thermoluminescence dosimeter . The intensity of the thermoluminescent light is proportional to the amount of radiation previously absorbed. This type of dosimetry has been used in the treatment of cancer patients since 1953 and is used wherever people are professionally exposed to radiation. The thermoluminescence dosimeter was followed by OSL dosimetry, which is not based on heat but on optically stimulated luminescence and was developed by Zenobia Jacobs and Richard Roberts at the University of Wollongong (Australia). The detector emits the stored energy in the form of light. The light output measured with photomultipliers is then a measure of the dose.
Full body counter
Whole-body counters have been used in radiation protection since 2003 to monitor the absorption (incorporation) of radionuclides in people who deal with gamma-emitting unsealed radioactive substances and may be contaminated through food, inhalation of dusts and gases or through open wounds. ( This means that α and β emitters cannot be measured).
Test specimen
During the constancy test, reference values are checked as part of quality assurance in x-ray diagnostics , nuclear medicine diagnostics and radiation therapy . The respective national regulations stipulate which parameters are to be tested, which limit values are to be observed, which test methods are to be used and which test specimens are to be used. In Germany, the “Radiation Protection in Medicine” guideline and the relevant DIN standard 6855 in nuclear medicine require regular (sometimes working-day) constancy tests. To test the responsiveness of probes measuring stations as well as in vivo - and in vitro -Messplätzen will test source used. Before starting the investigations, the underground counting rate and the setting of the energy window must be checked every working day , the settings and the yield at least once a week with a reproducible geometry using a suitable test source, e.g. 137 cesium (DIN 6855-1). The reference values for the constancy test are determined during the acceptance test.
Compact test specimens for medical X-ray images were only created in 1982. Previously, the patient himself often served as an object for making X-ray test images. Prototypes of such an X-ray phantom with integrated structures have been developed by Thomas Bronder at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt .
A water phantom is with distilled water filled plexiglass tank, the representative of living tissue for testing in the radiation therapy used electron linear accelerators is used. According to the statutory provisions, checks using a water phantom must be carried out approximately every three months to ensure that the radiation output provided on the therapy device according to the radiation plan actually occurs at this level.
As an X-ray phantom, the Alderson-Rando phantom invented by Samuel W. Alderson (1914-2005) has become the standard. This was followed by the Alderson Radio Therapy Phantom (ART), for which he applied for a patent in 1967. The ART phantom is cut horizontally into 2.5 cm thick slices. Each disc has holes which are closed with bone-equivalent, soft-tissue-equivalent or lung-tissue-equivalent pins, which can be replaced by thermoluminescent dosimeters. Alderson also went down in history as the inventor of the crash test dummy .
Dose reconstruction with ESR spectroscopy of deciduous teeth
After accidents or improper use and disposal of radiation sources, a not inconsiderable number of people are exposed to radioactive radiation to varying degrees. Radioactivity and local dose measurements are not sufficient to fully assess the effects of radiation. For the retrospective determination of the individual radiation dose, measurements are carried out on teeth, i.e. on biological, endogenous materials. The enamel is for the detection of ionizing radiation because of its high mineral content ( hydroxyapatite particularly suitable), which is known by the research by John M. Brady, Norman O. Aarestad and Harold M. Swartz since 1968th The measurements are performed on primary teeth - preferably molars - by means of electron spin resonance - spectroscopy (ESR, English Electron paramagnetic resonance, EPR ). The concentration of radicals generated by ionizing radiation is measured in the mineral tooth component . Due to the high stability of the radicals, this method can be used for the dosimetry of long-term exposures.
Dose reconstruction using biological dosimetry
In addition to physical dosimetry, biological dosimetry has enabled an individual, personal dose reconstruction of ionizing radiation since around 1988. There are repeated exposure to radiation without a physical dose control having been carried out. This applies above all to unforeseen, accidental radiation exposure. Biological markers are used for this, in particular cytogenetic markers in the lymphocytes of the blood . Techniques for detecting radiation damage are the analysis of dicentric chromosomes after acute radiation exposure. Dicentric chromosomes are the result of improper repair of chromosome breaks in two chromosomes. They have two centromeres and not just one like undamaged chromosomes. Symmetrical translocations ( fluorescence in situ hybridization , FISH) are used after chronic or long-term irradiation. In addition, the stand to measure the acute exposure micronucleus test and the PCC assay ( English Premature chromosome condensation , premature chromosome condensation ' ) are available.
Measured quantities and units
In principle, reducing the exposure of the human organism to ionizing radiation to zero is not possible and may not even make sense. The human organism has been used to natural radioactivity for thousands of years and ultimately it also triggers mutations (changes in the genetic make-up ) that are the cause of the development of life on earth. The mutation-inducing effect of high-energy radiation was first demonstrated in 1927 by Hermann Joseph Muller (1890–1967).
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation , three years after its founding in 1958 - especially at the instigation of the Soviet Union - adopted the linear dose-effect relationship without a threshold value - Linear No-Threshold ( LNT model ). The dose-response relationship measured at high doses was extrapolated linearly towards small doses. There would be no threshold value because even the smallest amounts of ionizing radiation would trigger some biological effect. The LNT model not only ignores the possible Strahlenhormesis , but also the well-known ability of cells , DNA damage repair, as well as the ability of the organism damaged cells to be removed. John W. Gofman (1918-2007) and Arthur R. Tamplin from the University of California, Berkeley carried out a research work on behalf of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC, 1946-1974) between 1963 and 1969 , in which they examined the relationships between Investigated radiation doses and cancer cases. From 1969 onwards, their results sparked heated controversy in the USA. Ernest J. Sternglass , radiologist at the University of Pittsburgh, published several studies from 1970 onwards in which he described the effects of radioactive radiation in connection with nuclear tests and in the vicinity of nuclear power plants on child mortality. In 1971, the UASEC then reduced the maximum permitted radiation dose by 100 times. Subsequently, nuclear technology was based on the principle of “As Low As Reasonably Achievable” ( ALARA ) ( German as low as reasonably achievable ). A coherent principle as long as it is assumed that there is no threshold value and that all doses are additive. In the meantime there is more and more discussion about a transition to “As High As Reasonably Safe” ( AHARS ) ( German as high as necessary for safety reasons ). For the question of evacuation after accidents, a transition to AHARS appears to be absolutely necessary.
Absorbed dose and dose equivalent
The British physicist and radiologist and founder of Radiobiology Louis Harold Gray (1905-1965) was in the 1930s, the unit wheel ( acronym for English radiation absorbed dose , absorbed dose ' ) for the absorbed dose introduced in 1978 after him as a unit Gray ( Gy) was renamed. One gray corresponds to the energy of one joule that is absorbed by one kilogram of body weight. Acute exposure of more than four gray is usually fatal to humans. The different types of radiation ionize to different degrees. Ionization is any process in which one or more electrons are removed from an atom or molecule so that the atom or molecule remains as a positively charged ion ( cation ). A radiation weighting factor is assigned to each type of radiation . For x-ray , gamma and beta radiation , the factor is one, alpha radiation reaches a factor of twenty, and for neutron radiation it is between five and twenty, depending on the energy.
If you multiply the radiation dose in Gray by the weighting factor of the type of radiation, you get the organ dose , given in Sievert (Sv). It is named after the Swedish physician and physicist Rolf Maximilian Sievert (1896–1966). Sievert was the founder of radiation protection research and developed the Sievert chamber in 1929 to measure the intensity of X-rays. He founded the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements ( ICRU , German International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurement ) and later became chairman of the International Commission on Radiological Protection ( English International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP ). In some cases, the term equivalent dose is also used. In contrast to the organ dose, the equivalent dose is not based on the actually absorbed dose of an organ or body part, but calculates with an average value for a soft tissue with defined properties. An organ dose of around 0.2 Sv increases the likelihood of genetic damage and the risk of cancer. The value corresponds to about a hundred times the radiation exposure that is measured on average in Germany each year.
Tolerance dose
In 1931, the US Advisory Committee on X-Ray and Radium Protection (ACXRP, today: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements , NCRP), founded in 1929, published the results of a study on the so-called tolerance dose, on which a scientifically based radiation protection guide was based. The exposure limit values were successively reduced. In 1936 the tolerance dose was 0.1 R / day. The unit "R" (the X-ray), from the CGS system of units , has been obsolete since late 1985. Since then, the SI unit of the ion dose has been “ coulombs per kilogram ”.
Relative biological effectiveness
After the Second World War, the concept of the tolerance dose was replaced by that of the maximum allowable dose and the concept of relative biological effectiveness was introduced. The limit value was set in 1956 by the National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements (NCRP) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP, German International Radiation Protection Commission ) to 5 rem (50 mSv ) per year for radiation workers and to 0.5 rem per year for the general population established. The unit Rem as the physical unit of measurement of the radiation dose (from English Roentgen equivalent in man , X-ray equivalent in humans ) was replaced in 1978 by the unit Sv (Sievert). The background was the rise of atomic energy and the dangers associated with it. Before 1991, the dose equivalent was used as a designation for both the dose parameter and body doses, which is decisive for the course and chances of survival in radiation sickness . With the ICRP publication 60 the radiation weighting factor was introduced for the body dose . For examples of equivalent doses as body doses, see
Banana equivalent dose
The origin of the concept of using a banana equivalent dose (BÄD) as a benchmark is unknown. Gary Mansfield from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory took place in 1995, the banana equivalent dose ( english banana equivalent dose (BED) ) very useful to the public to explain radiation risks. It is not a formally applied dose specification.
The banana equivalent dose is the dose of ionizing radiation to which a person is exposed by eating a banana. Bananas contain potassium . Natural potassium consists of 0.0117% of the radioactive isotope 40 K (potassium-40) and has a specific activity of 30,346 becquerels per kilogram, i.e. about 30 becquerels per gram. The radiation dose from eating a banana is approximately 0.1 μSv. The value of this reference dose is given as "1" and thus becomes the "unit of measurement" of the banana equivalent dose. Consequently, other radiation exposures can be compared with the consumption of a banana. For example, the average total daily radiation exposure of a human is 100 banana equivalent doses.
With 0.17 mSv per year, almost 10 percent of the natural radioactive pollution in Germany (average 2.1 mSv per year) is caused by the body's own (vital) potassium.
The banana equivalent dose can not be considered that by eating potassium-food no radioactive nuclide is accumulated in the body ( cumulative ). The body's potassium content is in homeostasis and is kept constant.
Disregard of radiation protection
Unethical radiation experiments
The Trinity test was the first nuclear explosion carried out as part of the United States' Manhattan Project . There were neither warnings to residents about the fallout nor information about protection options or possible evacuations.
In 1946 tests followed in the Marshall Islands (Operation Crossroads) , of which the chemist Harold Carpenter Hodge (1904-1990), toxicologist for the Manhattan Project , told in his lecture (1947) as President of the International Association for Dental Research . Hodges reputation was established by 1999. In publication of historian Eileen welsome The Plutonium Files - America's Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War ( English secret medical experiments during the Cold War America ) made a major question mark (for them the Pulitzer Prize was awarded). It documents terrifying human experiments in which the subjects did not know that they (also by Hodge) were used as "guinea pigs" to find out the safety limits of uranium and plutonium. The tests carried out at the non-enlightened subjects experiments were the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC, German Atomic Energy Commission continued) until the 1970s.
The abuse of radiation continues to the present day. In the United States, ethically reprehensible radiation experiments were carried out on unenlightened subjects during the Cold War to determine the detailed effects of radiation on human health. Between 1945 and 1947, 18 people were injected with plutonium by Manhattan Project Doctors . In Nashville, pregnant women were given radioactive mixtures. In Cincinnati, approximately 200 patients received radiation over a period of 15 years. In Chicago, 102 people received injections of strontium and cesium solutions. In Massachusetts, 57 children with developmental disabilities were given oatmeal with radioactive markers. It was not until 1993 that these radiation experiments were stopped under President Bill Clinton . However, the injustice committed was not atoned for. Uranium hexafluoride has caused radiation damage in a DuPont Company facility and among residents for years . At times, the heated uranium hexafluoride was even released into the environment by the factory in a targeted manner in order to investigate the effects of the radioactive and chemically aggressive gas.
Stasi border controls
At 17 border crossings between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany , vehicles were screened using 137 Cs gamma sources between 1978 and 1989 . According to the transit agreement, checks on vehicles were only allowed if there was justified suspicion. That is why the Ministry for State Security (Stasi) installed and operated a secret radioactive control technology under the code name “Technik V” , with which all transit travelers were usually screened in order to discover “ refugees from the republic ”. Ordinary GDR customs officers did not find out about the secret radioactive control technology and were subject to strict "entry regulations" in order to largely "protect" them from radiation exposure. Lieutenant General Heinz Fiedler (1929–1993), as the highest-ranking border guard of the MfS, was responsible for all radiation controls. On February 17, 1995, the Radiation Protection Commission published a statement in this regard, in which it stated: "Even assuming that individual people stopped in the radiation field more frequently and that up to three minutes of fluoroscopy increased the annual radiation exposure to one to a few mSv, there is no hazardous dose ”. In contrast, the designer of this type of border control calculated 15 nSv per passage. Lorenz from the former State Office for Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety in the GDR came up with a dose estimate of 1000 nSv, and a few weeks later corrected himself to 50 nSv.
Radar systems
Radar devices are used, among other things, at airports, in airplanes, rocket positions , in tanks and on ships. With the radar technology customary in the 20th century, X-ray radiation was a technically unavoidable by-product in the high-voltage electronics of the devices. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Bundeswehr soldiers and technicians were largely ignorant of the dangers, as were those of the GDR's National People's Army . The problem had been international since the 1950s, and the Bundeswehr was aware of it from around 1958 at the latest. However, no radiation protection measures were taken, such as wearing lead aprons. Until about the mid-1980s, the shielding of radiation, especially of the pulse interrupters, was inadequate. Maintenance technicians ( radar mechanics ) who were exposed to the X-ray radiation generating parts for hours without any protection were particularly affected . The permissible annual limit value could already be exceeded after 3 minutes. It was not until 1976 that general warning notices were attached to the German Navy and from the early 1980s, and protective measures were taken. As recently as the 1990s, the Bundeswehr denied any connection between radar equipment and cancer or genetic damage. The number of victims is several thousand. The connection was later recognized by the Bundeswehr and in many cases an additional pension was paid. In 2012, a foundation was set up for unbureaucratic compensation for victims.
Radiation protection crimes
National Socialism
At the time of National Socialism , the harmful effects of X-rays were recognized. The function of the gonads ( ovaries or testicles ) is destroyed by ionizing radiation , which leads to infertility . In July 1942 Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945) decided to have attempts to carry out forced sterilization in the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp , which Horst Schumann (1906–1983), previously a doctor in the T4 campaign , carried out. Each trial victim had to stand between two X-ray machines that were arranged so that the trial victim had just enough space between them. Across from the X-ray machines was a cabin with lead walls and a small window to the front. From the cabin, Schumann was able to direct X-rays onto the sexual organs of his test victims without endangering himself. Likewise, human experiments on radiation castration were carried out in concentration camps under the direction of Viktor Brack (1904–1948) . As part of the “ Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Offspring ”, people in interrogation situations were often subjected to radiation castration without their knowledge. Around 150 radiologists from hospitals across Germany took part in the forced castration of around 7,200 people using X-rays or radium radiation.
Polonium murder
On November 23, 2006, Alexander Walterowitsch Litvinenko (1962–2006) was murdered under unexplained circumstances as a result of radiation sickness caused by polonium . This was also temporarily suspected in the case of Yasser Arafat (1929–2004), who died in 2004 .
Radiation crimes
The abuse of ionizing radiation is one of the radiation crimes in German criminal law . The use of ionizing radiation to damage people or property is sanctioned . Since 1998 the regulations can be found in § 309 StGB (previously § 311a StGB old version); the regulations are based on § 41 AtG a. F. back. In the seventh section of the Austrian Criminal Code , publicly dangerous offenses and offenses against the environment are defined as relevant criminal offenses. In Switzerland, a hazard from nuclear energy, radioactive substances or ionizing radiation is punishable under Art. 326ter StGB and disregard of safety regulations according to Chapter 9 of the Nuclear Energy Act of March 21, 2003.
Radiation protection for less energetic types of radiation
Originally, the term radiation protection only referred to ionizing radiation. In the meantime, non-ionizing radiation is also included and is the responsibility of the Federal Office for Radiation Protection, the Radiation Protection Department of the Federal Office of Public Health and the Federal Ministry for Climate Protection, Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology . As part of a project, data was created for all European countries (47 countries plus Germany) as well as for important non-European countries (China, India, Australia, Japan, Canada, New Zealand and the USA) on the respective legal situation in the countries on electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields (EMF) and optical radiation (OS) collected, evaluated and compared. The results varied widely and sometimes differ from the recommendations of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) ( German International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation ) from.
UV light
For many centuries, the Inuit ( Eskimos ) have used snow goggles with narrow slits, carved from seal bones or reindeer antlers, to protect against snow blindness (photokeratitis).
In the 1960s, Australia - especially Queensland - started the first awareness campaign about the dangers of ultraviolet radiation (UV) in the interests of primary prevention . In the 1980s, many countries in Europe and overseas then initiated similar campaigns on UV radiation protection . The UV radiation has a thermal effect on the skin and eyes and can lead to skin cancer ( malignant melanoma ) and inflammation or cataracts in the eye. To protect the skin from harmful UV radiation, for example photodermatosis , acne aestivalis , actinic keratosis or urticaria solaris , normal clothing, special UV protective clothing ( sun protection factor 40-50) and sun cream with a high sun protection factor can be used. In order to produce protective clothing that is worn when bathing - especially by children - and to produce shading textiles (sunshades, awnings), the Australian-New Zealand standard (AS / NZS 4399) from 1996 measures on new textile material in unstretched material and dry condition. The UV standard 801 assumes a maximum radiation intensity with the solar spectrum in Melbourne (Australia), on January 1st of each year (at the height of the Australian summer), the most sensitive skin type for the wearer and under wearing conditions. Since the solar spectrum in the northern hemisphere differs from that in Australia, the measurement method according to the European standard EN 13758-1 is based on the solar spectrum of Albuquerque (New Mexico, USA), which roughly corresponds to that in southern Europe.
To protect the eyes, sunglasses with UV protection or special protective goggles , which also shield the sides, are used to prevent snow blindness. A defense reaction of the skin is the formation of a light callus , a skin's own sun protection that corresponds to a protection factor of 5. At the same time, the production of brown skin pigments ( melanin ) in the corresponding cells ( melanocytes ) is stimulated.
A sun protection film is usually a film made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) that is applied to windows in order to reduce the light and heat of the sun's rays. The film filters UV-A and UV-B radiation. Polyethylene terephthalate goes back to an invention of the two Englishmen John Rex Whinfield (1902–1966) and James Tennant Dickson in 1941.
The fact that UV-B radiation ( Dorno radiation , according to Carl Dorno (1865–1942)) is a proven carcinogen, but at the same time is also required for the body's own vitamin D 3 synthesis (cholecalciferol), leads to international contradictions Recommendations regarding health-promoting UV exposure. On the basis of the scientific findings of the last decades, a recommendation "UV exposure for the formation of the body's own vitamin D" was published in 2014, which was agreed by 20 scientific authorities, specialist societies and professional associations for radiation protection, health, risk assessment, medicine and nutritional science. It was the world's first interdisciplinary recommendation on this topic. Using a solarium for the first time at a young age (<35 years) almost doubles the risk of developing black skin cancer. In Germany, the use of a solarium has been prohibited by law for minors since March 2010. As of August 1, 2012, solarium equipment may no longer exceed a maximum irradiance of 0.3 watts per square meter of skin. The devices must be marked accordingly. The new limit of the irradiance corresponds to the highest UV dose that can be measured on earth, namely at 12 noon with a cloudless sky at the equator.
For medical applications, the minimum erythema dose (MED) is determined. The MED is defined as the lowest radiation dose that produces a barely visible erythema. It is determined 24 hours after the test irradiation. It is carried out with the lamp type intended for therapy by placing so-called light stairs on skin that is normally not exposed to light (for example on the buttocks).
Mountain sun
Richard Küch (1860–1915) was able to melt quartz glass for the first time in 1890 - the basis for UV radiation sources - and founded Heraeus Quarzschmelze . He developed the first quartz lamp (mountain sun) to generate UV radiation in 1904 and thus laid the basis for this form of light therapy.
Despite the dosage problems, medical practitioners increasingly used quartz lamps in the early 20th century. The representatives of internal medicine and dermatologists were among the most diligent testers. After success with skin tuberculosis , internal medicine treated tuberculous pleurisy ( pleurisy ), glandular tuberculosis or tuberculosis of the intestine. In addition, doctors tested the effect of the quartz lamps on other infectious diseases such as syphilis , metabolic diseases , cardiovascular diseases , nerve pain such as sciatica or nerve diseases such as neurasthenia and hysteria . In dermatology , fungal diseases , purulent ulcers and wounds , psoriasis as well as acne , freckles and hair loss were treated with quartz lamps, and in gynecology abdominal diseases. Rejuvenation specialists use the artificial sunlamp to stimulate the activity of the sex glands and treat infertility , impotentia generandi ( impotentia generandi ) and lack of sexual pleasure with irradiation of the genitals. Philipp Keller (1891–1973) developed an erythema dosimeter for this purpose , with which he measured the amount of radiation not in Finsen units (UV radiation with a wavelength λ of 296.7 nm and an irradiance E of 10 −5 W / m²), but in Solar elevation units (HSE). Around 1930 it was the only measuring device in this regard, which, however, found little acceptance in medical circles.
The therapy of acne with ultraviolet radiation is still controversial today. Although UV radiation can have an antibacterial effect, it can also induce proliferation hyperkeratosis . As a result, there is a threat of new comedones ("blackheads"). In addition, there can be phototoxic effects. In addition, it is carcinogenic and promotes skin aging. UV therapy is increasingly being abandoned in favor of photodynamic therapy .
laser
The ruby laser was developed in 1960 by Theodore Maiman (1927–2007) on the basis of the ruby grain as the first laser ever. Soon afterwards, the dangers that a laser could pose were discovered, especially for the eyes and skin, because the laser has only a shallow penetration depth. Lasers have numerous possible uses in technology and research as well as in everyday life, from simple laser pointers (light pointers ) to distance measuring devices , cutting and welding tools , the playback of optical storage media such as CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs, transmission of messages to laser scalpel and other laser light devices used in everyday medical practice. The Radiation Protection Commission demands that laser applications on human skin may only be carried out by a specially trained doctor. It can also be used in show effects in discos and at events.
Lasers can cause biological damage due to the properties of their radiation and due to their sometimes extremely concentrated electromagnetic power. Therefore, depending on the laser class , lasers must be provided with standardized warning notices. The DIN standard EN 60825-1 is decisive for the classification . A distinction is made between the ranges of wavelengths and exposure times that lead to characteristic injuries and injury threshold values of the power or energy density .
The CO 2 laser was developed in 1964 by the Indian electrical engineer and physicist Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel (* 1938), and at the same time the Nd: YAG laser (neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser) in the Bell Laboratories of LeGrand Van Uitert ( 1922–1999) and Joseph E. Geusic (* 1931) and the Er: YAG laser (erbium-doped yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser) and have been (also) used in dentistry since the early 1970s . In the hard laser area, there are two main systems for use in the oral cavity: the CO 2 laser for use in soft tissue and the Er: YAG laser for use in hard tooth substance and in soft tissue. With the soft laser treatment , biostimulation with low energy densities is aimed for.
The Radiation Protection Commission strongly recommends that the possession and purchase of laser pointers of classes 3B and 4 be regulated by law so that improper use is prevented. The cause is the increase in dangerous glare attacks from high-power laser pointers. In addition to pilots, those affected increasingly include truck and car drivers, train drivers, soccer players, referees and also visitors to soccer games. Such a glare attack can lead to serious accidents as well as to occupational disability for pilots or truck drivers due to the damage to the eyes . On April 1, 1988, the first accident prevention regulation was published as BGV B2 professional association regulation, followed on January 1, 1997 by DGUV regulation 11, the German statutory accident insurance . Between January and mid-September 2010, the Federal Aviation Office registered 229 glare attacks nationwide on helicopters and planes of German airlines. On October 18, 2017, a criminal was sentenced to one year and six months imprisonment without parole after a blinding attack on a helicopter of the federal police .
Electromagnetic radiation exposure
Electrosmog is colloquially understood as the exposure of people and the environment to electrical , magnetic and electromagnetic fields , some of which are assumed to have undesirable biological effects. The electromagnetic environmental compatibility (EMVU) comprises the effect on living beings, some of which are considered to be electro- sensitive. Fears of such effects have existed since the beginning of technical use in the mid-19th century. In 1890, for example, officials of the Royal General Directorate in Bavaria were forbidden to attend the opening ceremony of the first German AC power plant, the Elektricitäts-Werke Reichenhall , or to enter the engine room. With the establishment of the first radio telegraphy and its telegraph stations, the US magazine The Atlanta Constitution reported in April 1911 about the possible danger of waves from radio telegraphs, which in the course of time not only lead to “tooth loss” but also to hair loss and make people “crazy” should. Full-body protective clothing was recommended for prevention .
In the course of the second half of the 20th century, other sources of electromagnetic fields became the focus of health concerns, such as power supply lines, photovoltaic systems , microwave ovens, computer and television screens, security devices, radar devices and, more recently, cordless telephones ( DECT ), mobile telephones and their base stations , Energy-saving lamps and Bluetooth connections. Electrified railway lines as well as overhead lines of the tram and busbars of the underground are also strong sources of electrosmog. The World Health Organization (WHO) in 1996, the EMF Project ( English Electro Magnetic Fields ) started to consolidate around current knowledge and available resources of key international and national organizations and scientific institutions on electromagnetic fields. The Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) published the following recommendation in 2006:
"In order to prevent possible health risks, the BfS recommends minimizing personal radiation exposure through your own initiative."
From 2016, the EMF guideline applies 2016 EUROPAEM ( European Academy of Environmental Medicine , English European Academy For Environmental Medicine ) for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment EMF-related complaints and illnesses.
Microwaves
A microwave oven , which the US researcher Percy Spencer (1894-1970) invented in 1950 , is used to quickly heat food using microwave radiation with a frequency of 2.45 gigahertz. In the case of an intact microwave oven, the leakage radiation is relatively low due to the shielding of the cooking space. An "emission limit value of five milliwatts per square centimeter (corresponds to 50 watts per square meter) at a distance of five centimeters from the device surface" (radiation density or power flux density) is specified. Children should not stand in front of or next to the appliance while the food is being prepared. The Federal Office for Radiation Protection also names pregnant women as particularly at risk.
Electromagnetic waves are generated in microwave therapy for heat treatment. The depth of penetration and the energy distribution vary depending on the frequency of the application (shortwave, ultra-shortwave, microwaves). To achieve a greater depth of penetration, impulse microwaves are used, each of which brings great energy into the tissue. A pulse pause ensures that there are no burns. Contraindications of treatment are metal implants and pacemakers .
Mobile phones
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So far, the discussion about possible health hazards from cell phone radiation has been controversial, although according to the current state of knowledge no valid results are available. According to the Federal Office for Radiation Protection
"There are still uncertainties in the risk assessment that could not be completely eliminated by the German Mobile Telecommunications Research Program, in particular the possible health risks of long-term exposure to high-frequency electromagnetic fields through phone calls with the cell phone in adults (intensive cell phone use for more than 10 years) and the question of whether the use of mobile phones by children could have any health effects. For these reasons, the BfS continues to consider preventive health protection (precautionary measures) to be necessary: exposure to electromagnetic fields should be as low as possible. "
The Federal Office for Radiation Protection recommends, among other things, cell phones with a low SAR value (specific absorption rate) and the use of headsets or the hands-free system to keep a distance between cell phone and head. The possibility is being discussed that cell phone radiation could increase the incidence of acoustic neuroma , a benign tumor that originates from the auditory and equilibrium nerves ( vestibulocochlear nerve ). Therefore this should be reduced. In everyday life, a mobile phone only sends at maximum power in exceptional cases. As soon as it is close to a cellular network where the maximum power is no longer required, this cell instructs it to reduce its power. Electrosmog or cell phone radiation filters that are built into cell phones are supposed to protect against radiation. The effect is dubious from the point of view of electromagnetic environmental compatibility, as it simultaneously increases the radiation intensity from the cell phone disproportionately in order to obtain the necessary performance. The same applies to use in the car without an external antenna, since otherwise the necessary radiation can only penetrate through the windows, or in areas with poor network coverage. Radio network repeaters for cell phone networks ( GSM , UMTS , Tetrapol ) have been developed since 2004 , which can amplify the reception of a cell phone in shaded buildings. This will reduce the SAR value of the cell phone when making calls.
The SAR value of a Wi-Fi - the router is only one-tenth of the mobile phone radiation, which falls at one meter distance already by another 80%. The router can be set to switch itself off when not in use, for example at night.
Electric fields
High voltage lines
Until now, electrical energy has been transported from the power station to the consumer almost exclusively by means of high-voltage lines in which alternating current flows at a frequency of 50 Hertz . In the course of the energy transition , high-voltage direct current transmission systems (HVDC) are also planned in Germany . Since the amendment to the 26th Federal Immission Control Ordinance (BImSchV) in 2013, immissions from HVDC systems have also been regulated by law. The limitation is selected so that interference from electronic implants by static magnetic fields is avoided. No limit value has been set for static electric fields.
Domestic electrical installation
In order to reduce electrical fields and (with current flow ) also magnetic fields that emanate from the domestic electrical installation , mains isolators are available. In the case of installations under plaster , only a small part of the electrical field can escape from the wall. However, a mains isolator automatically disconnects the relevant line as long as no power consumer is switched on; as soon as a consumer is switched on, the mains voltage is switched on again. The network isolators were introduced in 1973 and have been continuously improved over the decades. In 1990 it was also possible to switch off the PEN conductor (previously: neutral conductor ). The mains isolator can be installed in several different circuits , preferably in those that supply bedrooms. However, they only switch off when no continuous power consumers such as air conditioners, fans, humidifiers, electric alarm clocks, night lights, standby devices, alarm systems, chargers and the like are switched on. Instead of the mains voltage, a low voltage (2-12 volts) is applied, with which the switching on of a consumer can be recognized.
Rooms can also be screened off with copper wallpaper or special metal-containing wall paints, using the Faraday cage principle.
Body scanner
Body scanners have been used mainly at airports for security checks (passenger checks ) since around 2005 . Passive scanners detect natural radiation emitted by a person's body and use it to locate objects worn or hidden on the body. In active systems, artificial irradiation is also used to improve detection by analyzing the backscatter . In the case of body scanners, a distinction is made as to whether they work with ionizing (mostly X-ray radiation ) or non-ionizing radiation ( terahertz radiation ).
The integrated components working in the lower terahertz range emit less than 1 mW (-3 dBm ), which means that no health damage is to be expected. There are contradicting studies from 2009 as to whether genetic damage can be proven as a result of terahertz radiation. In the United States, X-ray backscatter scanners make up the majority of the devices used. When it comes to X-ray backscatter scanners, scientists fear that a future increase in cancer rates could pose a greater risk to the life and limb of passengers than terrorism itself. Whether the body scanners used for a specific check only use terahertz radiation or X-rays as well not clearly ascertainable for the passenger.
According to the Federal Office for Radiation Protection, the few available results from investigations in the frequency range of active full-body scanners that work with millimeter wave or terahertz radiation do not yet allow a final assessment from the point of view of radiation protection (status: May 24, 2017).
In the vicinity of the facility, in which employees or other third parties can stay, the limit value of the permissible annual dose of one millisievert (1 mSv, including pregnant women and children) is not exceeded for an individual member of the population.
In the case of X-ray scanners for hand luggage, it is not necessary to set up a radiation protection area in accordance with Section 19 RöV, since the radiation exposure during a hand luggage check for passengers does not exceed 0.2 microsievert (μSv) even under unfavorable assumptions. For this reason, those employed with baggage checks are not classified as occupationally exposed persons according to Section 31 RöV and therefore do not have to wear a dosimeter.
Radiation protection in electromedical treatment procedures
Electromagnetic alternating fields have been used in medicine since 1764, mainly for warming up and increasing blood flow ( diathermy , short-wave therapy ) to improve wound and bone healing. The relevant radiation protection is regulated by the Medical Devices Act together with the Medical Device Operator Ordinance . The Medical Devices Ordinance came into force in Germany on January 14, 1985. In it, the medical-technical devices known at the time were divided into groups according to their degree of risk for the patient. The Medical Devices Ordinance governed the handling of medical devices until January 1, 2002 and was replaced by the Medical Devices Act. When using ionizing radiation in medicine, the benefit must be greater than the potential risk of tissue damage ( justifying indication ). For this reason, radiation protection is of particular importance. The execution should be optimized with the ALARA principle ( As Low As Reasonably Achievable , English: “as low as reasonably achievable”) as soon as an application is described as suitable. The European ALARA Network (EAN) founded by the European Commission has been taking care of the further implementation of the principle in radiation protection since 1996 .
Infrared radiation
Infrared radiation , discovered around 1800 by the German-British astronomer, technician and musician Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel (1738–1822), primarily generates heat. If the increase in body temperature and the duration of exposure exceed critical limits, heat damage and even heat stroke can result. Due to the still unsatisfactory data situation and the partly contradicting results, clear recommendations for radiation protection with regard to infrared radiation are not yet possible. However, the findings regarding the acceleration of skin aging by infrared radiation are sufficient to call the use of infrared radiation against wrinkling as counterproductive.
In 2011, the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance established exposure limit values to protect the skin from burns caused by thermal radiation . The IFA recommends using a limit value for exposure times between 10 and 1000 sec for exposure times of up to 10 seconds in addition to the limit value specified in EU Directive 2006/25 / EC for protecting the skin from burns . In addition, for comparison with the limit values, all radiation components in the wavelength range from 380 to 20,000 nm should be taken into account.
Radiation protection regulations
First radiation protection regulations
The issue of radiation protection was systematically addressed for the first time with a leaflet published by the German Radiological Society (DRG) in 1913 . The physicist and co-founder of the Society Bernhard Walter (1861–1950) was one of the pioneers of radiation protection.
The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) ( German International Commission on Radiological Protection ) was constituted in 1928 on the second International Congress of Radiology in Stockholm, as well as the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU). In the same year, the first international radiation protection recommendations were adopted and each country represented was asked to develop a coordinated program for radiation control. The representative of the United States, Lauriston Taylor of the US Bureau of Standards (NSB), formed the advisory committee on X-ray and radium protection, which was later renamed the National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) ( German National Committee for Radiation Protection and Measurements ) has been. The NCRP received a Congressional Charter in 1964 and continues to develop guidelines to protect individuals and the public from excessive radiation. In the years that followed, almost all presidents founded numerous other organizations.
Radiation protection monitoring
Pilots, nuclear medicine specialists and employees of nuclear power plants are exposed to ionizing radiation during their professional activities. To protect these people from the harmful effects of radiation, more than 400,000 people in Germany are subject to occupational radiation protection monitoring. Around 70,000 people who work in different companies have a radiation pass (not to be confused with the X-ray pass - see below ). All those who can receive an effective dose of more than 1 millisievert per year during their professional activities are monitored for radiation protection . (The effective dose from natural radiation in Germany is 2.1 millisieverts per year). To do this, dosimeters measure the radiation dose . The limit value for the occupational radiation dose is 20 millisieverts per year. The monitoring also relates to buildings, system components or (radioactive) substances. These are released from the scope of the Radiation Protection Ordinance with a special administrative act, the release in radiation protection. To this end, it must be ensured that the radiation exposure for an individual in the population does not exceed 10 µSv in a calendar year and the resulting collective dose does not exceed 1 person sievert per year.
Radiation Protection Register
According to Section 170 Radiation Protection Act (StrlSchG), all occupationally exposed persons and holders of radiation passports require a radiation protection register number (SSR number), a unique personal identification number, from December 31, 2018. The SSR number facilitates and improves the allocation and balancing of the individual dose values from occupational radiation exposure in the radiation protection register. It replaces the previous radiation pass number. It is used to monitor dose limit values. Companies are obliged to deploy their employees in such a way that the radiation dose to which they are exposed does not exceed the limit of 20 millisievert in a calendar year. In Germany, around 440,000 people were classified as occupationally exposed to radiation in 2016. Pursuant to Section 145, Paragraph 1, Clause 1 of the Radiation Protection Act, "in the case of remediation and other measures to prevent and reduce exposure to radioactive contaminated sites, those who carry out the measures themselves professionally or have them carried out by workers under their supervision have a Assessment of the body dose of the workers. ”The application for SSR numbers at the Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) for all employees currently under surveillance must be carried out by March 31, 2019.
The application for the SSR number at the BfS and the transmission of the necessary data must be ensured in accordance with Section 170 (4) sentence 4 StrlSchG from
- Radiation protection officer or from
- Obliged according to § 131 paragraph 1 or § 145 paragraph 1 sentence 1 StrlSchG or from
- Responsible according to § 115 paragraph 2 or § 153 paragraph 1 StrlSchG.
The SSR numbers are then to be kept available for further use within the framework of the usual communication with the measuring points or radiation passport authorities. The SSR number is derived from the social security number and personal data using non-traceable encryption . The transfer takes place online. Around 420,000 people in Germany are monitored for radiation protection (as of 2019).
Emergency responders (including volunteers) who are not professionally exposed persons within the meaning of the Radiation Protection Act also need an SSR number afterwards, i.e. after an assignment in which they were exposed to radiation above the thresholds specified in the Radiation Protection Ordinance, as everyone relevant exposures are to be recorded in the radiation protection register.
Radiation protection areas
Spatial areas are referred to as radiation protection areas in which either people can receive certain body doses when they are there or in which a certain local dose rate is exceeded. These are defined in Section 36 of the Radiation Protection Ordinance and Sections 19 and 20 of the X-ray Ordinance . According to the Radiation Protection Ordinance, a distinction is made between radiation protection areas, depending on the risk, between restricted area (local dose rate ≥ 3 mSv / hour), control area (effective dose> 6 mSv / year) and monitoring area (effective dose> 1 mSv / year).
Radiological emergency protection projects
Early warning systems
Germany, Austria and Switzerland, along with many other countries, have early warning systems in place to protect the population.
The local dose rate measurement network (ODL measurement network) is a radioactivity measurement system operated by the German Federal Office for Radiation Protection, which determines the local dose rate at the measurement location.
As radiation early warning system is in Austria a measurement and reporting system, which was built in the late 1970s called, is designed to help the already early detection of ionizing radiation on the territory and to allow increases to take necessary measures. The measured values are automatically delivered to the headquarters in the ministry, after which the departments involved, such as the federal warning center or the state warning centers of the federal states, can access them.
The NADAM (network for automatic dose alarming and measurement) is the measuring network for gamma radiation of the national alarm center in Switzerland. The measuring network is supplemented by the more compact MADUK stations (measuring network for automatic dose rate monitoring in the vicinity of the nuclear power plants) of the Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (ENSI).
NERIS-TP project
In the years 2011–2014, the NERIS-TP project aimed to discuss the knowledge gained through the European project EURANOS in connection with nuclear emergency measures with all relevant stakeholders .
PREPARE project
The European PREPARE project aims to close gaps in nuclear and radiological emergency protection that were identified after the accident in Fukushima. In the project, emergency protection concepts are to be checked in the event of long-term releases, problems with measurement methods and in food safety in the event of cross-border contamination are to be dealt with, and missing functions in decision support systems are to be supplemented (source term reconstruction, improved dispersion modeling, consideration of the aquatic dispersion path in European river systems) .
IMIS project
Environmental radioactivity has been monitored in Germany since the 1950s . This was done until 1986 by various authorities who did not coordinate with one another. On the occasion of the confusion during the Chernobyl reactor disaster in April 1986, the measurement activities were bundled in the IMIS project (Integrated Measurement and Information System), an environmental information system for monitoring radioactivity in Germany. In the past, the measuring devices were affiliated to the warning offices under the name WADIS ("Warning Service Information System").
CONCERT project
The goal of the project CONCERT ( English European Joint Program for the Integration of Radiation Protection Research , Community European Program for the integration of radiation protection research ' ) is based on the current strategic research programs of European research platforms MELODI (radiation effects and radiation risks) ALLIANCE (Radioecology) NERIS (nuclear and radiological emergency protection), EURADOS (radiation dosimetry ) and EURAMED (medical radiation protection), to establish a joint European program for radiation protection research in Europe in 2018.
Task force for all types of nuclear emergencies
The Nuclear Emergency Support Team (NEST) is an American program for all types of nuclear emergencies run by the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) of the United States Department of Energy and is also an anti-terrorist unit that deals with incidents involving radioactive substances or nuclear weapons US-owned operates overseas. It was founded in 1974/75 under US President Gerald Ford and renamed the Nuclear Emergency Support Team in 2002 . In 1988, a secret agreement from 1976 between the USA and the Federal Republic of Germany became known that stipulated the use of NEST in the Federal Republic. In Germany, a similar unit called the Central Federal Support Group for Serious Cases of Nuclear Hazard Defense (ZUB) has existed since 2003 .
Legal basis
As early as 1905, the French Viktor Hennecart called for special legislation that regulates the use of X-rays. In England in 1915 Sidney Russ (1879–1963) proposed to the British Roentgen Society to set up a number of safety standards of its own accord, which came about in July 1921 through the formation of the British X-Ray and Radium Protection Committee. In the United States, the American X-Ray Society drafted its own guidelines in 1922. In the German Reich, a special committee of the German Radiological Society under Franz Maximilian Groedel (1881–1951), Hans Liniger (1863–1933) and Heinz Lossen (1893–1967) formulated the first guidelines after the First World War. In 1953, the employers' liability insurance association issued the accident prevention regulation “Use of X-rays in medical establishments” based on the legal basis in Section 848a of the Reich Insurance Code . In the GDR, the Occupational Safety and Health Order (ASAO) 950 was valid from 1954 to 1971 . This was replaced on April 1, 1971 by the ASAO 980.
EURATOM
The European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) was founded on March 25, 1957 by the Treaties of Rome, France, Italy, the Benelux countries and the Federal Republic of Germany and has remained almost unchanged to this day. Chapter 3 of the Euratom Treaty regulates the measures to ensure the health of the population. Article 35 prescribes facilities for constant monitoring of the soil, air and water for radioactivity . Then appropriate monitoring networks have been installed in all the Member States that their data to the central database of the EU raised ( EURDEP , English European Radiological Data Exchange Platform send). The platform is part of the ECURIE system of the EU for the exchange of information in radiological emergency situations and was put into operation in 1995. Switzerland also participates in the information system.
Legal basis in Germany
In Germany, an X-ray Ordinance ( RGBl. I p. 88) was first issued in 1941 and originally applied to non-medical establishments. The first medical regulations were issued by the Main Association of Commercial Employers' Liability Insurance Associations as accident prevention regulations for the Reich Insurance Code in October 1953. Basic standards for radiation protection were introduced by directives of the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) on February 2, 1959. The Atomic Energy Act of December 23, 1959 is the national legal basis for all radiation protection law in Germany (West) with the Radiation Protection Ordinance of June 24, 1960 (only for radioactive substances), the Radiation Protection Ordinance of July 18, 1964 (for the medical sector) and X-ray ordinance of March 1, 1973. Radiation protection was formulated in Section 1, according to which life, health and property are to be protected from the dangers of nuclear energy and the harmful effects of ionizing radiation and damage caused by nuclear energy or ionizing radiation is to be compensated . The Radiation Protection Ordinance defines dose limits for the general population and for people who are occupationally exposed to radiation. In general, every application of ionizing radiation must be justified and radiation exposure must be kept as low as possible below the limit values. For this purpose, doctors, dentists and veterinarians, for example, have to provide evidence of updating their specialist knowledge in radiation protection every five years - in accordance with Section 18a (2) RöV in the version of April 30, 2003 - and complete a full-day course with a final examination. The specialist knowledge in radiation protection is prescribed according to the technical knowledge guideline technology according to RöV - R3 for people who are active in the use of baggage screening equipment, industrial measuring equipment and stray radiation. Since 2019, the regulatory areas of the previous X-ray and radiation protection ordinances have been merged in the amended Radiation Protection Ordinance.
The Radiation Protection Commission (SSK) was founded in 1974 as an advisory body to the Federal Ministry of the Interior . It emerged from the Expert Commission IV "Radiation Protection" of the German Atomic Energy Commission , which was constituted on January 26, 1956 . After the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986, the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety was founded in the Federal Republic of Germany . The establishment of this ministry was primarily a reaction to the inadequately coordinated way in which politicians were dealing with the Chernobyl disaster and its consequences. On December 11, 1986, the German Bundestag passed the Radiation Protection Precautionary Act (StrVG) to protect the population, to monitor radioactivity in the environment and to keep human radiation exposure and radioactive contamination of the environment as low as possible in the event of radioactive accidents or incidents . The last new version of the X-ray Ordinance was issued on January 8, 1987. In the course of a comprehensive modernization of German radiation protection law, which was largely based on Directive 2013/59 / Euratom, the provisions of the X-ray Ordinance were incorporated into the newly drafted Radiation Protection Ordinance.
In addition to numerous other measures, contaminated food has been withdrawn from the market on a large scale. Parents were strongly advised not to let their children play in sandpits. Some of the contaminated sand was replaced. In 1989, the Ministry of the Environment was expanded to include the Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS). A new announcement of the Radiation Protection Precaution Act followed on April 30, 2003 for the implementation of two EU directives on the health protection of people against the dangers of ionizing radiation in the event of medical exposure. The protection of employees from optical radiation ( infrared radiation (IR), visible light (VIS) and ultraviolet radiation (UV)), which belongs to the field of non-ionizing radiation , is regulated by the occupational health and safety ordinance on artificial optical radiation of July 19, 2010 . It is based on the EU Directive 2006/25 / EC of April 27, 2006. On March 1, 2010 the “Law on Protection from Non-Ionizing Radiation in Use on Humans” (NiSG) came into force, Federal Law Gazette I p. 2433, according to which, since August 4, 2009, minors have been prohibited from using solariums in accordance with Section 4 NiSG (last amended by Article 4 of the law of April 8, 2013 (Federal Law Gazette I No. 17, p. 734)). On October 1, 2017, a new radiation protection law came into force in Germany.
In Germany, a radiation protection officer leads and supervises activities to ensure radiation protection when handling radioactive substances or ionizing radiation. Its tasks are described, among other things, in Sections 31 to 33 of the Radiation Protection Ordinance and Sections 13 to 15 of the X-ray Ordinance. It is appointed by the radiation protection officer who is responsible for ensuring that all radiation protection regulations are complied with.
X-ray pass
An X-ray passport is a document in which the examining doctor or dentist has had to enter information about the patient's X-ray examinations since 2002. In particular, this should avoid unnecessary repeat examinations. According to the new Radiation Protection Ordinance (StrlSchV), practices and clinics are no longer obliged to offer their patients X-ray passports and to enter examinations in them since January 1, 2019. The Radiation Protection Ordinance came into force on December 31, 2018 together with the Radiation Protection Act (StrlSchG), which was passed in 2017 and replaces the previous Radiation Protection Ordinance and X-ray Ordinance. The Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) nevertheless advises patients to keep records of radiation diagnostic examinations themselves. The Federal Office has made a document available for download on its website that can be used for personal documentation.
Legal basis in Switzerland
In Switzerland, institutionalized radiation protection began in 1955 with the adoption of guidelines for protection against ionizing radiation in medicine, laboratories, commercial and manufacturing companies , which, however, were only recommendations. A new constitutional article (Art. 24) created the legal basis, according to which the federal government issues regulations on protection against the dangers of ionizing radiation. Building on this, a corresponding federal law came into force on July 1, 1960. On May 1, 1963, the first Swiss ordinance on radiation protection came into force. As supplements to the ordinance, the following decrees were essentially issued by the Federal Department of Home Affairs (FDHA) on October 7, 1963 :
- about radiation protection in medical X-ray systems
- on radiation protection for shoe x-ray machines (of which around 850 were in operation in 1963; the last was not shut down until 1990)
- about the radioactivity of luminous dials.
Another 40 ordinances followed. The monitoring of such facilities dragged on - due to a lack of staff - over many years. Dosimeters were supposed to be used for personal protection since 1963, but this met with all kinds of resistance. The enactment of an updated radiation protection law lasted until 1989. This went hand in hand with the radiation protection training of the persons concerned.
Legal basis in Austria
The legal basis for radiation protection in Austria is the Radiation Protection Act (BGBl. 277/69 as amended) of June 11, 1969. The tasks in radiation protection extend to the areas of medicine, trade and industry, research, schools, employee protection and food. The General Radiation Protection Ordinance, Federal Law Gazette II No. 191/2006, has been in force since June 1, 2006. On the basis of the Radiation Protection Act, it regulates the handling of radiation sources and the measures to protect against ionizing radiation. The Ordinance on Optical Radiation (VOPST) is a detailed ordinance on the Employee Protection Act (ASchG).
See also
literature
- J. Samuel Walker: Permissible Dose: A History of Radiation Protection in the Twentieth Century . University of California Press, November 1, 2000, ISBN 978-0-520-92484-0 . Limited preview in Google Books .
- KN Govinda Rajan: Radiation Safety in Radiation Oncology . CRC Press, July 28, 2017, ISBN 978-1-4987-6226-7 . Limited preview in Google Books .
- Radiation Exposure and Radiation Protection . Springer-Verlag, March 13, 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-82229-2 . Limited preview inGoogle Books.
- J. Samuel Walker: Short History of Nuclear Regulation, 1946-1999 . DIANE Publishing, April 2001, ISBN 978-0-7567-0929-7 . Limited preview in Google Books .
- Ashley W. Oughterson, Shields Warren: Medical Effects of the Atomic Bomb in Japan. Volume VIII.8 from the National Nuclear Energy Series on the Manhattan Project, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1956.
- Carl Voegtlin, Harold C. Hodge: Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds. Volume VI.1, Part I and Part II (with a Section on the Pharmacology and Toxicology of Fluorine and Hydrogen Fluoride) from the National Nuclear Energy Series for the Manhattan Project, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1949.
- Henry DeWolf Smyth (written on the request of Maj. Gen. LR Groves): Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. The official report on the development of the atomic bomb under the auspices of the United States Government, 1940-1945. Princeton University Press, 1946.
- James E. Grindler (Argonne National Laboratory): The Radiochemistry of Uranium. Nuclear Science Series, National Research Council, NAS-NS 3050, undated.
Web links
- Laws, ordinances, guidelines, reports and publications on radiation protection , timeline since 2002 of the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety . Retrieved November 28, 2017.
- Guidelines for quality assurance in radiology , German Medical Association, November 23, 2007. Accessed December 4, 2017.
- DIN standards for radiology , DIN standards committee for radiology NAR in cooperation with the German X-ray Society, June 2015. Accessed on December 4, 2017.
- Radiation Protection in Veterinary Medicine - Guideline for the Radiation Protection Ordinance (StrlSchV) and the X-ray Ordinance (RöV) September 25, 2014, Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety, Unit Medical-Biological Matters of Radiation Protection Ref. RS II 4 - 11432/7. Retrieved November 28, 2017.
- Radioactivity and Radiation Protection , Federal Office of Public Health (Switzerland), July 2007. Accessed November 25, 2017.
- Overview of the international radiation protection associations and organizations , Austrian Association for Radiation Protection. Retrieved December 3, 2017.
- Human Radiation Experiments DOE Openness. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
- Department of Energy OpenNet Resources . Retrieved January 10, 2018.
- Igor Gusev, Angelina Guskova, Fred A. Mettler: Medical Management of Radiation Accidents, Second Edition . CRC Press, March 28, 2001, ISBN 978-1-4200-3719-7 , pp. 299-. . Limited preview in Google Books .
Individual evidence
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- ↑ Radiation Protection Act of June 27, 2017 (Federal Law Gazette I p. 1966), last amended on June 27, 2017 (Federal Law Gazette I p. 1966)
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- ↑ CONSOLIDATED VERSION OF THE TREATY ESTABLISHING THE EUROPEAN NUCLEAR COMMUNITY (2012 / C 327/01) (PDF)
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- ^ AL Remick, JL Crapo, CR Woodruff: US national response assets for radiological incidents. In: Health physics. Volume 89, Number 5, November 2005, pp. 471-484, PMID 16217190 .
- ↑ Jeffrey T. Richelson, US Nuclear Detection and Counterterrorism, 1998-2009 National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 270, January 23, 2009. Retrieved November 19, 2017.
- ↑ Nuclear Emergency Search Team US Department of Energy, September 20, 1991. Retrieved November 19, 2017.
- ↑ Nuclear-specific hazard prevention ( memento of the original dated December 1, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Federal Office for Radiation Protection. Retrieved November 19, 2017.
- ↑ V. Hennecart, G. Holzknecht, H. Kurella need for legal regulation of the use of X-rays, negotiations of the German Radiological Society, Volume III, 1, 1905, pp 237-240.
- ↑ Simon Lee, Michael Crean, The Story of Radiology , European Society of Radiology in cooperation with ISHRAD - The International Society for the History of Radiology und Deutsches Röntgen Museum, 2013, Volume II, p. 39. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
- ↑ EURDEP: European Radiological Data Exchange Platform . Retrieved November 29, 2017.
- ↑ 87/600 / Euratom Council decision of 14 December 1987 on Community agreements for the accelerated exchange of information in the event of a radiological emergency. Retrieved November 29, 2017.
- ^ European Community Urgent Radiological Information Exchange, (ECURIE) . Retrieved November 29, 2017.
- ↑ EU Science Hub , Joint Research Center (JRC). Retrieved November 29, 2017.
- ^ Andreas Fuhrmann: Dental Radiology . Thieme, 2013, ISBN 978-3-13-165351-2 , pp. 176-177.
- ^ History of the SSK , Radiation Protection Commission. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
- ↑ Ordinance on the further modernization of radiation protection law of November 29, 2018 Federal Law Gazette I p. 2034
- ↑ Council Directive 2013/59 / Euratom of 5 December 2013 laying down basic safety standards for protection against the dangers of exposure to ionizing radiation
- ↑ 96/29 / EURATOM of the Council of May 13, 1996 laying down the basic safety standards for the protection of the health of workers and the general public against the dangers of ionizing radiation , ( Official Journal of the European Union EC No. L 159 p. 1). Retrieved November 3, 2017.
- ↑ 97/43 / EURATOM of the Council of June 30, 1997 on the health protection of persons against the dangers of ionizing radiation in the event of medical radiation exposure and on the repeal of Directive 84/466 / EURATOM (OJ EC No. L 180 p. 22). Retrieved November 3, 2017.
- ↑ Ordinance on the Protection of Employees from Risks from Artificial Optical Radiation , Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection. Retrieved November 5, 2017.
- ↑ Directive 2006/25 / EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of April 5, 2006 on minimum health and safety requirements for workers from the risk of physical agents (artificial optical radiation) (PDF) . Retrieved November 5, 2017.
- ↑ Text of the law on protection against non-ionizing radiation when used on humans (NiSG) .
- ↑ Law on the reorganization of the law to protect against the harmful effects of ionizing radiation . German Society for Medical Physics . Retrieved November 3, 2017.
- ↑ Ordinance on the further modernization of radiation protection law , Federal Law Gazette Part I No. 41 of December 5, 2018. Accessed January 30, 2019.
- ↑ Röntgenpass, Federal Office for Radiation Protection. Accessed January 30, 2019.
- ^ Eduard Müller-Schärer: A Contribution to the History of Radiation Protection in Switzerland, 1989. Retrieved on November 4, 2017.
- ↑ Radiation Protection Act Austria , jusline. Retrieved November 4, 2017.
- ↑ General Radiation Protection Ordinance Austria , jusline. Retrieved November 4, 2017.
