1984 Summer Olympics
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Venue: | Los Angeles ( United States ) |
Stadion: | Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum |
Opening ceremony: | July 28, 1984 |
Closing ceremony: | August 12, 1984 |
Opened by: | Ronald Reagan (President of the USA ) |
Olympic oath : |
Edwin Moses (athlete) Sharon Weber (referee) |
Disciplines: | 29 (21 sports) |
Competitions: | 221 |
Countries: | 140 |
Athletes: | 6797, 1567 of them women |
← Moscow 1980 | |
Seoul 1988 → |
Medal table | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
space | country | G | S. | B. | Ges. |
1 |
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83 | 61 | 30th | 174 |
2 |
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20th | 16 | 17th | 53 |
3 |
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17th | 19th | 23 | 59 |
4th |
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15th | 8th | 9 | 32 |
5 |
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14th | 6th | 12 | 32 |
6th |
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10 | 18th | 16 | 44 |
7th |
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10 | 8th | 14th | 32 |
8th |
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8th | 1 | 2 | 11 |
9 |
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7th | 4th | 7th | 18th |
10 |
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6th | 6th | 7th | 19th |
... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |
22nd |
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1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
26th |
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- | 4th | 4th | 8th |
Complete medal table |
The 1984 Summer Olympics (officially called the XXIII Games ) took place from July 28 to August 12, 1984 in Los Angeles , United States . The Californian city was the only one to apply to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to host these Olympic sports competitions . 140 teams with a total of 6,797 athletes took part in the 1984 Summer Games, including 5,230 men and 1,567 women.
After the Olympic boycott of the USA and 41 other countries at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow and the measures introduced by US politicians in 1983 to exclude Soviet athletes, the Soviet Union boycotted the Los Angeles Games. Another 18 mostly real socialist states also refused to participate, but not Romania , China and Yugoslavia . Although a new record was ultimately set with 140 nations, seven teams, including the Eastern Bloc countries and Cuba, stayed away from the Olympic competitions, which eight years earlier had won around half of all medals at the last joint Summer Olympics in Montreal in 1976 . A large part of the world's elite was therefore missing in numerous sports. It was the last Olympic Games with a major boycott.
In Los Angeles, the Olympic Games were financed privately for the first time, with the IOC opening up to commercialization. So sponsors appeared on a large scale and used the games for their advertising.
The most successful participants were the Romanian gymnast Ecaterina Szabó with four gold and one silver medal and the American athlete Carl Lewis with four gold medals.
canditature
Los Angeles in previous applications
After hosting the Summer Olympics in 1932, Los Angeles tried several times in vain to be the venue again. In 1932, around a million dollars in profits had been made, which is why local business people wanted to bring the 1940 Summer Olympics to the city. To this end, they founded the Southern California Committee for the Olympic Games (SCCOG). However, after the outbreak of World War II , the project was forgotten. After the war, Los Angeles applied three times without success: 1946 for the 1948 Summer Olympics , 1947 for the 1952 Summer Olympics and 1949 for the 1956 Summer Olympics .
After the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) had nominated Detroit for each of the following four applications and had failed, Los Angeles applied again in 1970 to host the 1976 Summer Olympics . Mayor Sam Yorty founded the LA76 Committee with its chairman, John Kilroy , an entrepreneur and athlete who was supposed to bring the Games to the United States on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence . Los Angeles was able to prevail in the USOC domestic elimination. At the IOC , however, the plan to finance the Olympic Games with a private fund if the state should not participate, aroused suspicion. In the election during the 1970 IOC session in Amsterdam , Los Angeles was eliminated with only 17 votes in the first round; in the second round, Montreal won against Moscow .
Los Angeles made a new attempt after this defeat and competed for the 1980 Summer Olympics. The chances were reduced by the sporting political situation, since the Soviet Union had reacted angrily to Moscow's failure in the 1970 decision and some IOC members did not annoy them further wanted to. Moscow was able to prevail against Los Angeles at the 1974 IOC session in Vienna with 39 to 20 votes with two abstentions and host the 1980 Summer Games.
Application for 1984
Los Angeles entered the race again for the 1984 Summer Olympics. The city council assured the SCCOG of its support in a resolution on October 27, 1975 and commissioned a study for a cost-benefit analysis. That study put an expected deficit of $ 200 to $ 336.5 million as no state or federal funding was expected, while the SCCOG expected a profit of $ 750,000. After the SCCOG President John C. Argue had assured that no tax money would be needed, the city council voted with 12 to 0 votes with three absent Olympic opponents on May 12, 1977 for the application for the Games. In the American domestic selection process at the USOC, Los Angeles prevailed on September 25, 1977 with 55 to 39 against New York City . Atlanta , Boston , Chicago and New Orleans had previously withdrawn from the proceedings. Both chambers of Congress supported the application from Los Angeles, but this did not result in any financial aid from the state.
Because of the financial loss at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, the global economic crisis of 1974 and 1975 and the IOC's demand for better guarantees, the cities of Algiers , Glasgow and Riyadh abandoned their applications. In June 1977, Tehran, the last competitor, withdrew, so that Los Angeles was the only remaining candidate at the IOC's registration deadline on October 31, 1977. In the run-up to the 80th IOC session in Athens , the leadership of the USOC, representatives of the City of Los Angeles and Thomas Keller , the President of the General Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF), met for a discussion, during which Keller answered unsatisfactory received. In addition, 17 of the 22 sports federations represented in the GAISF rejected the Los Angeles concept and asked the IOC for a new tender. The Olympic Games were provisionally awarded to Los Angeles at the IOC session on May 18, 1978, after US President Jimmy Carter and the Governor of California , Jerry Brown , had promised their support and the IOC had assured Keller that Los Angeles would all Must meet the requirements of the Olympic Charter . One condition was that the contract should comply with the Olympic rules by August 1, 1978, otherwise the right to host the event would have reverted to the IOC. There was a particular dispute over financial liability, as neither the USOC nor the city wanted to take over it. Finally, a private “Committee of Seven” faced the IOC as a negotiating partner. On June 15, 1978, this became the Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee (LAOOC), which, with the plans to hold the competitions largely in existing sports facilities, negotiated the television contract itself , to forego a central Olympic village and not to the IOC The IOC met with little approval.
However, no alternative applicants could be found, as the financial risks were too great in New York and the Mayor of Munich Erich Kiesl tried unsuccessfully to suggest Munich as the venue. The IOC therefore gradually gave in: The deadline for Los Angeles was extended to August 21, 1978, until finally the 1984 Summer Olympics in a postal vote by the IOC Los Angeles with 75 votes in favor, three against and six abstentions were awarded. The Los Angeles City Council voted eight to four with three absent members, and finally, on October 20, 1978, the Los Angeles-IOC Treaty was signed by Tom Bradley and Lord Killanin in the White House .
preparation
organization
On January 26, 1979, the LAOOC appointed the 65-person Board of Directors, on March 26, 1979 Paul Ziffren was appointed Chairman and Peter Ueberroth as President. The LAOOC appointed a commissioner for each sport to organize the competitions. In 1982 a sub-commission was set up to organize each of the 25 individual areas of activity. Michael O'Hara , who himself took part in the 1964 Olympic volleyball tournament, was the sports director .
As announced during the application phase, there were hardly any major construction projects. The LAOOC selected for the most part already existing sports facilities in the greater Los Angeles area for the Olympic competitions. Only the swimming stadium, the velodrome and the tennis courts were newly built. The first two were each financed by sponsors. As announced, the LAOOC did not build a central Olympic village , but distributed the athletes' accommodation to three locations. The organizing committee initially wanted to charge $ 55 to $ 58 per day for the athletes' stay, four years earlier it was the equivalent of $ 20. After protests from some IOC members, the LAOOC finally lowered the price to $ 42.
The LAOOC concluded sponsorship agreements with 34 companies for funding . Coca-Cola paid $ 25 million and Anheuser-Busch paid $ 15 million, other sponsors included Canon , McDonald’s and American Express . Overall, the LAOOC achieved $ 123 million. In addition, the organizing committee sold licenses to 64 companies. The LAOOC and USOC also requested Congress to mint silver commemorative coins with denominations of $ 1 and $ 10 and commemorative gold coins with denominations of $ 50 and $ 100. Ultimately, two silver one-dollar coins priced at $ 32 and one gold ten-dollar coin priced at $ 352 were approved. LAOOC and USOC received $ 5 per silver coin sold and $ 25 per gold coin, respectively. Overall, the result exceeded the expected profit of $ 150 million, the LAOOC generated a profit of $ 232.5 million. Instead of transferring this money to the IOC as usual, 60% went to the USOC. With the remaining 40%, the Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles (LA84 Foundation) was established, in which former senior members of the LAOOC took positions.
Sports policy
boycott
The 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles represented a turning point in sporting policy. It was the last game with one of the great Olympic boycotts . After a South Korean airliner was shot down by a Soviet interceptor on September 1, 1983 for violating its airspace, anti-Soviet sentiment in the USA intensified. Right-wing conservative politician John Doolittle , who was a member of the California Senate , introduced a resolution calling for action, including the exclusion of Soviet athletes from the Olympics, to stop Soviet aggression. This was approved by the Congress of California with 74-0 votes and in the California Senate with 36-0. A group of Californian business people and representatives of the Korean-American community gathered behind Doolittle, and in the fall of 1983 they launched a large-scale campaign against a possible Soviet participation in the Olympics. These efforts were opposed by the official position of the LAOOC and the assurance of two US presidents to guarantee entry to all participants accepted by the IOC. Nevertheless, developments in the Soviet Union were received critically. In addition, there were disputes over the accreditation of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, over landing and mooring rights and questions of transport and visas , in which the LAOOC had for a long time unacceptable plans for the Soviet Union. The conflict escalated in early March 1984 when the US State Department refused accreditation to Soviet Olympic attaché Oleg Yermishkin because he was known to be an officer in the KGB . As a result, on April 2, 1984, the Soviet Union indicated a boycott to its allies for the first time. At a conference in Moscow on April 5 and 6, the head of the propaganda department of the Central Committee of the CPSU justified this with the lack of security guarantees.
On April 9, the NOC of the USSR asked the IOC President to convene a special session and to oblige the LAOOC to strictly adhere to the Olympic Charter. Juan Antonio Samaranch hesitated to react and finally scheduled a meeting between the Soviet NOK and the LAOOC in Lausanne on April 24th. However, the dispute could not be settled there. The NOK President Marat Gramow assured Samaranch that he would do nothing until he had spoken to Ronald Reagan. However, when Samaranch traveled to New York on May 7th to meet the US president the following day, he already knew that the Soviet Union was determined to boycott. On May 8, the Soviet Union officially announced the boycott. Obviously, the Soviet secret service also sent fake letters to National Olympic Committees of African and Asian countries that were not allied with the Soviet Union, in which it posed as the American Ku Klux clan and threatened attacks on athletes from these countries. Soviet media reported extensively on these alleged threats, which the US Attorney General Smith said were "cynical falsehood that violated both the Olympic ideal and the rule of law ."
The LAOOC President Ueberroth tried to persuade individual members of the Eastern Bloc to participate. His envoys failed in the GDR, but Romania, like the People's Republic of China, was persuaded. Samaranch made another attempt to avert the boycott on May 18 at the Soviet NOK and on May 24 in front of the chairmen of the sports departments of the socialist countries, but failed. In addition to the Soviet Union, 18 further NOKs remained with Afghanistan , Albania , Angola , Ethiopia , Bulgaria , the GDR , Iran , the People's Republic of Yemen , Cuba , Laos , Libya , Mongolia , North Korea , Upper Volta , Poland , Czechoslovakia , Hungary and Vietnam away from the games. With this boycott, the third major in a row, and fears that important teams could stay away from the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , the Olympic movement threatened to split despite the Soviet renunciation of countergames. For this reason, an extraordinary IOC session was called for December 1 and 2, 1984, at which the obligation of the NOCs to ensure the participation of their athletes was laid down and it was decided that the IOC would only send out the invitations.
Commercialization
The Los Angeles Games marked a turning point in terms of the commercialization of the Olympic Games. They were privately financed and showed that they not only have a sporting or ideal, but also an economic value. The IOC's focus on business was facilitated by the election of Juan Antonio Samaranch, the son of an industrialist with a degree in business administration and management , as IOC President. He set up a commission to look for new sources of funding for the IOC. He also secretly negotiated a contract for the exclusive marketing of later Olympic Games with the Swiss agency International Sport and Leisure (ISL), founded in 1982 and backed by Horst Dassler , with whose support Samaranch rose to IOC President in 1980. The contract became known at the 1983 IOC session in New Delhi and was criticized by some IOC members. But it also paved the way for the complete global commercialization of the Olympic Games: "The efforts of the sports leader [Samaranch] to help the Olympic movement achieve money, power and greatness, combined with the mercantile interests of the sporting goods retailer [Dassler]." Steffen Haffner. Representatives of the associations received Samaranch largely positively because, for example, he brought considerable financial resources to the NOKs, which could be marketed through ISL. After the 1984 Summer Olympics, which were marketed by the LAOOC itself, the IOC, in cooperation with ISL, founded the sponsorship program “The Olympic Program” (TOP I), which from 1985 to 1988 brought in around 97 million dollars. Despite all the criticism of this development, the success of the commercialization of the 1984 Games made it the model for the following Summer Games (→ commercialization and criticism ).
Olympic solidarity and professional sport
For the Olympic Summer Games in 1984, the IOC founded the "Olympic Solidarity", a program in which athletes from developing countries were to be supported with five million dollars . The first ideas of this kind came up in 1974, but they were only implemented after ten years. Athletes were prepared for participation in training courses, and the IOC also supported the teams with travel expenses. This helped to get a large number of participants despite the boycott.
During the 84th IOC session in Baden-Baden in 1981, the approval rule 26, known as the amateur paragraph, was changed and the Olympic movement was thus opened up to professional athletes. Willi Daume , the chairman of the admissions commission, achieved the change by making it clear that the rule should only be reinterpreted. Sports associations should have more freedom of choice and athletes should be able to fall back on funds financed by sponsors, although direct links between athletes and sponsors should remain prohibited. In the practical implementation, the fund concept was replaced by the regulation that the athletes would have to submit to the control of the respective NOK in questions of sponsorship within a period of four weeks before to two weeks after the games. But the rules for this waiting period and for financing through sponsorship funds were subsequently watered down, the professionalization of competitive sports changed the "popular sports greatly from the pursuit of victory to the pursuit of profit".
For the 1984 Games, only FIFA took advantage of the new opportunities for professional participation. It decided on June 9, 1982 to approve professionals born after June 1, 1961. Unrestricted admission of professionals was only granted in 1988 in Seoul in the sports of tennis and table tennis. This development continued, symbolized by the “ Dream Team ” of the NBA basketball professionals in 1992 in Barcelona .
building
Sports facilities
The LAOOC selected largely existing facilities in Los Angeles and Southern California to host the competitions ; there were only three new buildings. Games of the soccer tournament also took place in three stadiums further away from Los Angeles.
The central area of the Games was the Exposition Park , which had already been the centerpiece of the 1932 Summer Olympics. This is where the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum is located , where the opening and closing ceremonies as well as the athletics competitions were held. It was renovated for the Olympic Games, a new running track was built and the audience capacity was set at 90,500. Next to the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum is the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena , which opened in 1959 and where the boxing competitions took place in 1984. The games of the baseball demonstration took place in Dodger Stadium , inaugurated in 1962 , which had 56,000 spectators. The Pauley Pavilion , which had opened in 1965 and belongs to the campus of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), was used for the gymnastics competitions . The judo competitions were held by the organizers in the Eagles Nest Arena , which is part of California State University, Los Angeles (CSULA). The swimming stadium, in which all swimming competitions and diving took place, was built especially for the Olympic Games. The sports facility with a seating capacity of 16,000 was financed by the fast food chain McDonald’s , which was built on the campus of the University of Southern California (USC). Another newly built sports facility was the Los Angeles Tennis Center on the UCLA campus, where the demonstration of the sport took place. The weightlifting competitions took place in the Barley Pavilion , which opened in 1981 and is located on the grounds of Loyola Marymount University and has a capacity of 4,156 spectators.
Most of the other sports venues were located in Southern California. The archery took place on a temporary shooting range in El Dorado Park in Long Beach , which could seat 4,000 spectators. Fencing competitions and volleyball tournaments were also held in Long Beach in the Long Beach Convention Center from 1962. There is also the Long Beach Shoreline Marina and Harbor , which was the venue for sailing. The venue for the canoe racing and rowing competitions was Lake Casitas in Ventura County , while the road cycling routes were in Mission Viejo in Orange County . The basketball tournaments took place in the sports hall The Forum in Inglewood , which opened in 1967, in front of around 17,000 spectators. In Carson , the velodrome financed by a supermarket chain was built on the grounds of the California State University, Dominguez Hills . In contrast to the previous Olympic Games, this time there was no wooden track, instead the Chemcomp surface was used. The Titan Gymnasium in Fullerton , where handball tournaments were held during the games, is part of California State University, Fullerton . The competitions in wrestling were in 1967 opened the Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim held that in shooting at the Olympic Shooting Range in Prado Recreational Park in Chino . The water polo tournament took place in the Raleigh Runnels Memorial Pool of Pepperdine University in Malibu , the field hockey tournaments in Weingart Stadium at East Los Angeles College in Monterey Park , which opened in 1951 and renovated for the 1984 games . The LAOOC selected the equestrian center Santa Anita Park in Arcadia , which opened in 1934, as the venue for the equestrian competitions . The modern pentathlon was held in Coto de Caza .
The final as well as some preliminary and knockout games of the soccer tournament took place in the Rose Bowl Stadium in Pasadena , which opened in 1922 and had 104,594 spectators. Other stadiums in the soccer tournament were Harvard Stadium in Boston, Navy Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis and Stanford Stadium in Palo Alto .
Olympic villages
Contrary to tradition, no central Olympic village was built in Los Angeles . Instead, the LAOOC set up Olympic villages at three universities, which they could continue to use after the games. The largest, which housed around 7,000 athletes and officials from 79 teams, was located on the USC site , where it was directly connected to the other university facilities. A total of 1200 USC employees were employed there in order to provide the participants with training opportunities, technical assistance, a shopping center and a newly built cafeteria . There were also tents in which the press could interview the athletes.
The second Olympic Village was on UCLA's grounds, but was much more isolated from the rest of the university than it was at USC. It was home to 4,400 athletes and officials. There were four canteens in which a total of 2000 people could eat at the same time. Training opportunities were also offered in the village, along with entertainment such as stage shows and film screenings in an amphitheater, as well as concerts. The third Olympic village was set up on the grounds of the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) and housed the rowers and canoeists as well as their trainers and other officials. Even if it was often viewed as a sub-village, it contained all the offers of the other two villages. IOC officials stayed at the Baltimore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles during the Games .
Logo and mascot
The logo of the 1984 Summer Olympics shows three stars, which symbolize the pursuit of the highest achievements of mankind. The horizontal stripes symbolized the speed that is part of the pursuit of top performance. The three stars in the US national colors blue, white and red alluded to the award ceremony for the first to third place.
The mascot of the Los Angeles Games was the eagle Sam because the bald eagle is the national symbol of the United States. The white-tailed eagle should also represent the Olympic motto Citius, altius, fortius . So that the figure could be drawn as a participant in competitive sports, the wings were designed as arms and the feathers as fingers. The design for "Sam" came from Robert C. Moore , the art director of the Publicity Art Department at Walt Disney Productions . The appearance of the mascot was designed to be attractive to children. The mascot also had to take mockery for this design, so it was given nicknames such as “ Sam, the chicken ” (“Sam, the chicken”). In Japan, an anime series featuring the mascot was broadcast the year before the games.
Torch relay
The torch for the 1984 Summer Olympics torch relay had a leather handle and a bronze-colored head that featured the official name of the games, the Olympic motto and the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum . The design was carried out by Newhart, Donges, Newhart Designers . The main material was aluminum in order to meet the requirements that the torch should weigh less than 1600 grams, burn for 55 minutes and even in light rain and wind speeds over 60 km / h. The model used finally weighed one kilogram, was filled with around 360 grams of propane and was 56 centimeters long; its flame bowl had a diameter of 13 centimeters. In the end, the burning time was only assumed to be 45 minutes. Turner Industries manufactured 4,500 torches for the US and 740 torches for Greece . The Greek torches were returned after the torch relay there was canceled.
The torch relay took place in 1984 on the longest route at 15,000 kilometers, which was covered by a total of 3,636 runners across the USA. Compared to previous and subsequent games, the very long route with fewer torch- runners involved resulted from the fact that the largest route was contested by a team of 200 runners sponsored by AT&T . Only 3436 kilometers of the 82-day run were marketed as “Youth Legacy Kilometers” for $ 3,000 each. This marketing triggered considerable protests in Greece, which is why the four-day relay race between Olympia and Athens planned there was canceled. The Olympic flame was lit in closed circuit on May 7, 1984 in ancient Olympia by the Greek actress Katerina Didaskalou . At the same time a protest rally against the marketing of the torch relay took place in front of the town hall of Archea Olymbia , which the mayor of the town called for. The torch was transported to Athens by helicopter and then transferred to New York by plane. The American torch relay began there on May 8th on the United Nation Plaza . The first runners were Gina Hemphill - the granddaughter of Jesse Owens - and Bill Thorpe Jr. - the grandson of Jim Thorpe . Two hours after the start of the torch relay, the Soviet Union announced its boycott of the Los Angeles Games (→ boycott ).
The run passed through 33 US states and Washington, DC and visited 41 of the country's largest cities. On July 28th, the Olympic flame reached Los Angeles. Marketing the torch relay raised $ 10,950,567.68, which was distributed to the YMCA , US boys and girls clubs, the Special Olympics, and other beneficiaries.
Attendees
140 teams with a total of 6,797 athletes took part in the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, of which 5,230 were men and 1,567 were women. After the Olympic boycott at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow and after some incidents that jeopardized the USSR's commitment to participate in the Games, the Soviet Union declared its boycott of the Los Angeles Games on May 8, 1984. This was followed by 18 other NOKs (→ boycott ).
Still, the Los Angeles Games broke the record of 121 with 140 participating teams since the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich . In the meantime, the "boycott games" in 1976 and 1980 had prevented an increase in the number of participating teams. First-time participants were the teams Equatorial Guinea , Bahrain , Bangladesh , Bhutan , British Virgin Islands , Djibouti , Gambia , Grenada , Yemeni Arab Republic , Qatar , Mauritania , Mauritius , Oman , Rwanda , Solomon Islands , Tonga , United Arab Emirates , People's Republic of China and Western Samoa . Particular attention was paid to the People's Republic of China, which had not previously participated in the Olympic Games in protest against the admission of the Republic of China (Taiwan) . This also started in Los Angeles, but under the compromise name Chinese Taipei . Algeria , Dominican Republic , Ivory Coast , Zambia and Syria each won their first Olympic medal, Morocco , Portugal and the People's Republic of China each won their first Olympic gold.
However, the record for the number of participating athletes could not be broken. He stayed with Munich at 7132. At the 1988 Summer Olympics, both records were broken.
Ceremonies
Opening ceremony
At 3 p.m. on July 28, the opening ceremony of the 1984 Summer Olympics began at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. At the beginning of the event, 110 trumpeters and 20 kettle drums played the "Los Angeles Olympic Theme". The piece of music was composed by John Williams , who received a Grammy for it . Then five planes wrote the words “Welcome” in the sky and a “Rocketman”, who was carrying a rocket backpack and who also had “Welcome” written on its back, landed in the stadium.
The first dance element was a choreography presented by 1262 dancers with white and gold balloons as props for a specially written “Welcome” song. In doing so, they formed various formations, including the Olympic rings. During this sequence of the event, films showing citizens of Los Angeles waving were shown on the video screen. At the end of this part of the opening ceremony, the dancers let the balloons fly, from which banners with the word “Welcome” in 23 languages unfurled. At this prelude, US President Ronald Reagan , IOC President Samaranch and LAOOC President Ueberroth took their places. The US anthem was played and the flag was hoisted. Then a marching band with 800 musicians entered the stadium, followed by a 30-minute performance entitled Music of America . Among other things, the development of marching music and the development of jazz and big bands were presented. For the finale of this section, all of the contributing artists appeared together, and part of them formed the outline of the United States. This performance was followed by a spectator choreography in which the around 85,000 guests in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum had to raise colored plastic cards at set times in order to display the flags of all participating NOKs.
Then the official part of the program was celebrated. The President of the IOC presented the Olympic flag to the Mayor of Los Angeles, Tom Bradley . He then passed it on to the Chairman of the LAOOC, Paul Ziffren . Aileen Riggin and Alice Lord, two participants in the 1920s Games , where the flag was used for the first time, took part in this handover ceremony . Then the "Los Angeles Olympic Theme" was played again, which was followed by the invasion of the athletes. According to tradition, Greece marched into the stadium as the first team, followed by the others in alphabetical order of their English spelling. The host team USA moved in last. After this 1 hour and 22 minute program item, which exceeded the planned duration by only two minutes, the LAOOC President Ueberroth welcomed the athletes to Los Angeles, referred to the torch relay in his address and thanked the people of Southern California. Then he introduced the IOC President Samaranch. Samaranch emphasized the record of 140 participating NOCs and then referred to the boycott:
“May I extend a warm welcome to all the athletes and officials. I am sure that they will compete and participate in the true Olympic spirit of cooperation, understanding and friendship without any political influence. Nevertheless, our thoughts also go to those athletes who have not been able to join us. "
“May I extend a warm welcome to all athletes and officials. I am sure that they will compete and participate in the true Olympic spirit of cooperation, understanding and friendship, without political influence. Nevertheless, our thoughts go to those athletes who were unable to meet with us. "
He then passed the floor on to Ronald Reagan, the first US president to have the honor of officially opening the Olympics. Then wore Wyomia Tyus , John Naber , Parry O'Brien , Al Oerter , Bruce Jenner , Bill Thorpe Jr. , Billy Mills and Mack Robinson , the Olympic flag into the stadium. While it was being hoisted, the Olympic anthem was played . 4000 pigeons were then released as symbols of peace. Then Jesse Owens' granddaughter, Gina Hemphill, who had already started the torch relay in New York, ran the torch into the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and completed a stadium lap before handing the fire over to Rafer Johnson . This carried it up the stairs and lit the Olympic rings before ultimately, the Olympic flame was kindled. Then the flag bearers lined up in a semicircle around the speaker's podium, where Edwin Moses spoke the Olympic oath for the athletes and Sharon Weber for the judges .
2000 extras from different countries entered the stadium in their traditional costumes and formed a circle around the athletes. Then a children's choir took its place on the stairs and sang the Ode to the joy of Ludwig van Beethoven . At the finale of the opening ceremony, Vicky McClure stepped out of the choir and performed “Reach out and touch”, with many spectators and athletes holding hands and singing along.
Closing ceremony
The closing ceremony began at 6:45 p.m. on August 12, 1984 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Before the closing ceremony, the award ceremonies for the men’s marathon, which had just ended, and the individual show jumping competition were held. Then a marching band followed by the athletes entered the stadium. For the first time, the IOC had allowed all athletes and not just small delegations to march into the closing ceremony. Since the athletes danced and celebrated exuberantly, this part of the program lasted significantly longer than planned at 28 minutes. Following this, the flags of Greece, the USA and the host country of the following Summer Olympic Games, South Korea, were hoisted and their anthems played. This was followed by the handover of the Olympic flag by Tom Bradley , the mayor of Los Angeles, to Bo Hyun-yum , the mayor of Seoul. It was the first time that this handover was held in a closing ceremony. The Seoul City Dance Theater then performed a traditional Korean dance, while the Dance Theater of Harlem performed the finale of the Stars and Stripes Ballet.
The climax of the closing event followed with the speeches by LAOOC President Ueberroth and IOC President Samaranch. Ueberroth described the group of athletes as the best the world had ever seen and emphasized the high number of viewers for international television broadcasts: “ More people around the world watched your efforts and your struggles than any event in the history of mankind. "( Peter Ueberroth , German". More people around the world have seen their efforts and endeavors than any event in the history of mankind "before>") He then gave the floor to Samaranch on, the Ueberroth the Olympic Order in Awarded gold. In his address, the IOC President thanked the volunteers, the athletes, the media, the LAOOC, the State of California and the host city for hosting the games, which he described as "perfect". Samaranch declared the Los Angeles Olympics over and invited the world's youth to the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Afterwards it became dark in the stadium, while the Olympic flag was illuminated as it was being brought in and carried out of the stadium. The actor Richard Basehart read a fragment of text that the Greek poet Pindar had written for the Delphi Games . Shortly afterwards, the Olympic flame shrank and went out.
Afterwards, a flashing spaceship was shown above the dark stadium, which was flashed through with flashes of light. An “ alien ” appeared at the foot of the Olympic flame and announced that he had come the long way because he had liked what he could see (“ I've come a long way because I like what I've seen. ”). Then it disappeared again and a 30-minute fireworks display began with music, symbolizing all previous venues. Most recently, Lionel Richie sang a specially arranged 9-minute version of All Night Long , accompanied by 300 dancers .
Competition program
In Los Angeles there were a total of 221 competitions (146 for men, 62 for women and 13 open competitions) in 21 sports / 29 disciplines. That was 18 competitions and 2 more disciplines than in Moscow in 1980 - the number of sports remained the same.
There were also the demonstration sports baseball and tennis . Wheelchair races and windsurfing were shown as demonstrations , whereby the sports equipment used in the latter differed from that of the windsurfing competitions of the official program.
A total of 5,017,524 spectators followed the competitions and ceremonies. The soccer tournament was the most popular with 1,422,605 spectators, followed by athletics with a total of 1,129,485 spectators.
The changes to the previous Summer Olympics are detailed below:
- In boxing , a weight class (super heavyweight) was added to the men.
- In the canoe , the program has been expanded to include K4 500 m for women.
- In athletics , the women's program was expanded to include 400 m hurdles, 3000 m and the marathon. In addition, the heptathlon replaced the women's pentathlon.
- In track cycling , men's points were added - on the road there was a debut for women.
- When shooting , the open competitions trap, rapid fire pistol, small bore rifle lying, 50 m, small bore rifle running target 50 m and free pistol 50 m have been converted into men's competitions. The open competition small-bore rifle, three-position competition was split into a men's and a women's competition. Air rifles were also added for men and women - and sport pistols for women.
- In swimming , the program was expanded to include the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay for men - and the 200 m medley for men and women reintroduced after two breaks. In addition, the swimming program has been expanded to include synchronized swimming for women (duet and solo).
- In sailing , a boat class was introduced for the first time that was not open to both sexes - windsurfing (Board Windglider) for men was added to the competition program.
- In gymnastics , the rhythmic gymnastics discipline has been added to the program for women with an individual competition.
Olympic sports / disciplines
-
Basketball total (2) = men (1) / women (1)
-
Archery total (2) = men (1) / women (1)
-
Boxing total (12) = men (12)
-
Fencing total (8) = men (6) / women (2)
-
Football total (1) = men (1)
-
Weightlifting total (10) = men (10)
-
Handball total (2) = men (1) / women (1)
-
Hockey total (2) = men (1) / women (1)
-
Judo total (8) = men (8)
-
Canoe total (12) = men (9) / women (3)
-
Athletics total (41) = men (24) / women (17)
-
Modern pentathlon total (2) = men (2)
- Cycling
-
horse riding
-
Dressage total (2) = open (2)
-
Jump total (2) = open (2)
-
Versatility Overall (2) = Open (2)
-
-
Wrestling
-
Freestyle total (10) = men (10)
-
Greco-Roman total (10) = men (10)
-
-
Rowing total (14) = men (8) / women (6)
-
Shooting total (11) = men (7) / women (3) / open (1)
-
Swimming
-
Swimming total (29) = men (15) / women (14)
-
Synchronized swimming total (2) = women (2)
-
Water polo total (1) = men (1)
-
Diving total (4) = men (2) / women (2)
-
-
Sailing total (7) = men (1) / open (6)
-
Gymnastics
-
Artistic gymnastics total (14) = men (8) / women (6)
-
Rhythmic gymnastics total (1) = women (1)
-
-
Volleyball total (2) = men (1) / women (1)
Number of competitions in brackets
Time schedule
Time schedule | ||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
discipline | Sat. 28. |
Sun 29. |
Mon. 30. |
Tuesday 31 |
Wed. 1. |
Thursday 2. |
Fri. 3. |
Sat 4th |
Sun. 5. |
Mon. 6. |
Tuesday 7th |
Wed. 8. |
Thursday 9 |
Fr. 10. |
Sat 11. |
Sun. 12. |
Decision- disk- applications |
spectator | ||
July | August | |||||||||||||||||||
![]() |
92,655 | |||||||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 2 | 363.093 | ||||||||||||||||
![]() |
2 | 2 | 25,396 | |||||||||||||||||
![]() |
12 | 12 | 230.906 | |||||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8th | 40,441 | ||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 1,422,605 | |||||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 42,736 | ||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 2 | 69,352 | ||||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 2 | 150.732 | ||||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8th | 34,400 | ||||||||||
![]() |
6th | 6th | 12 | 54,144 | ||||||||||||||||
![]() |
3 | 3 | 5 | 7th | 4th | 2 | 5 | 11 | 1 | 41 | 1,129,485 | |||||||||
![]() |
2 | 2 | 21,588 | |||||||||||||||||
Cycling |
![]() |
1 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 42,000 | ||||||||||||||
![]() |
2 | 1 | 3 | |||||||||||||||||
Equestrian sport |
![]() |
1 | 1 | 2 | 282,372 | |||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
![]() |
2 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||
Wrestling |
![]() |
3 | 3 | 4th | 10 | 105,380 | ||||||||||||||
![]() |
3 | 3 | 4th | 10 | ||||||||||||||||
![]() |
6th | 8th | 14th | 68,385 | ||||||||||||||||
![]() |
2 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 11 | 24,826 | |||||||||||
Swimming |
![]() |
4th | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 29 | 305,896 | |||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 2 | |||||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4th | |||||||||||||||
![]() |
7th | 7th | 0 | |||||||||||||||||
Gymnastics |
![]() |
1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6th | 4th | 14th | 137.229 | |||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||
![]() |
1 | 1 | 2 | 300,428 | ||||||||||||||||
![]() |
90,861 | |||||||||||||||||||
Demonstration competitions | ||||||||||||||||||||
baseball | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||
tennis | 2 | |||||||||||||||||||
decisions | 9 | 8th | 10 | 8th | 15th | 20th | 24 | 20th | 11 | 6th | 16 | 15th | 21st | 34 | 4th | 221 | ||||
Sat. 28. |
Sun 29. |
Mon. 30. |
Tuesday 31 |
Wed. 1. |
Thursday 2. |
Fri. 3. |
Sat 4th |
Sun. 5. |
Mon. 6. |
Tuesday 7th |
Wed. 8. |
Thursday 9 |
Fr. 10. |
Sat 11. |
Sun. 12. |
|||||
July | August |
Color legend
Competitions
basketball
A men's and one women's basketball tournament was held in Los Angeles . Twelve teams started for the men, with the Soviet Union as world champions from 1982, previously regarded as the biggest competitor of the US team, not at the start due to the boycott. The United States team, trained by Bob Knight , which included Chris Mullin , Patrick Ewing and Michael Jordan , never got into trouble in any game and prevailed confidently until they won the Olympic Games. In the final, the Americans defeated the team from Spain, in which San Epifanio played among others , with 95:65. In the bronze medal match, Yugoslavia beat Canada 88:82. The team from the FRG, which was allowed to move up for the USSR, reached eighth place.
After two cancellations due to boycotts, only six teams took part in the women's tournament. With the USSR, the world champions of 1983, who had been expected as the toughest competitors of the Americans, were missing. The United States team with Cheryl Miller and Teresa Edwards competed confidently in the tournament. In the final she won against South Korea with 85:55 - her tightest win in the tournament. In the bronze medal match, the People's Republic of China prevailed against the team from Canada with 63:57.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / basketball
Archery
In archery twin competitions were held, involving a total of 62 men and 47 women took part. In the competition, the shooters completed a double FITA round with 144 arrows. In the men's category, the American Darrell Pace won with 2616 points ahead of his compatriot and frequent competitor Richard McKinney , who reached 2564 points. Pace thus set a new Olympic record. At the 1983 World Cup, McKinney had prevailed over Pace because he had scored two tens more with the same number of points. In the Olympic competition, this drama was missing because Pace led from the first lap. The bronze medal went to the Japanese Hiroshi Yamamoto with 2563 points. In the women's category, the 17-year-old South Korean Seo Hyang-soon won the gold medal with an Olympic record of 2568 points. The Chinese Li Lingjuan won silver with 2559, and bronze went to the South Korean Kim Jin-ho , who scored 2555 points and was last year's world champion and favorite.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Archery
Boxing
A total of 354 boxers from 81 countries competed in the boxing tournaments . Nine of the twelve titles went to the United States, whose boxers also won a silver and a bronze medal. Overall, the boxing competitions were overshadowed by partisan and wrong referee decisions. In retrospect, it turned out that the American Paul Gonzales Jr. , who won the gold medal in the light flyweight division and was awarded the Val Barker Cup for the technically best boxer, battled South Korean Kim in the first round of the tournament broke his hand. He should not have started again, but no referee noticed. This fact became particularly explosive because his final opponent, Salvatore Todisco from Italy, was no longer allowed to compete due to a broken hand and Gonzales won gold without a fight. After the Nigerian Charles Nwokolo was defeated by the Puerto Rican Jorge Maisonet with a controversial 3-2 referee decision in the round of 16 of the light welterweight division , spectators even threw animal excrement at the judges, and the president of the Nigerian Boxing Association threatened the referees with a walking stick. In the run-up to the Olympic Games in Los Angeles, AIBA had decided that 3-2 referee judgments could be overturned 5-0 by a jury. Since a jury member fails his assessment in 19 out of 20 cases, this regulation was abolished after the games.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Boxing
fencing
In Los Angeles, a total of 202 men and 60 women took part in the fencing competitions . The dominant nations were Italy with three gold, one silver and two bronze medals and France with two gold, one silver and three bronze medals. Behind was the FRG with two titles and three second places. The fencers of these teams made up the competitions for the most part among themselves. One of the few surprises was the Swede Björne Väggö , who started 44th in the world rankings in Los Angeles and finally won silver in the epee singles . In the women's foil singles , the Chinese Luan Jujie won the gold medal with 8: 3 against the German Cornelia Hanisch . The Chinese was previously runner-up behind Hanisch in 1981 and bronze medalist in 1983. The bronze medal went to the Italian Dorina Vaccaroni , who defeated the Romanian Elisabeta Guzganu in the battle for third place . The German female fencers won the team competition ahead of Romania and France.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Fencing
Soccer
16 teams took part in the Olympic football tournament. The FIFA had decided after the easing of amateur paragraphs that all players who were born after June 1, 1961 were allowed to participate. For teams from South America and Europe, it was also the case that their players had never participated in the qualification or final round of the World Cup . Due to the boycott, the 1980 medal winners, the ČSSR, GDR and USSR, stayed away from the games. Since these teams had prevailed next to Yugoslavia and France in the European qualification, the FRG, Norway and Italy moved up. Therefore, apart from Yugoslavia, only Costa Rica and Iraq participated in the 1980 Olympic football tournament.
The Brazilians were the first South American team after Uruguay and Argentina to survive the preliminary round at the 1928 Summer Olympics . In the bronze medal match, Italy lost 2-1 to the Yugoslav team after taking the lead in the first half. In the final, the French team headed by Henri Michel , which included Albert Rust and Didier Sénac , beat Brazil 2-0. It was the first Olympic victory in this sport for France and the first of a Western European team since the 1948 Games in London. Six weeks before the final, the French team - to which only Albert Rust belonged of the Olympians - had become European champions , so that France joined won both titles for the only time in one year.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Football
Weightlifting
In weightlifting , 186 athletes competed in ten weight classes. This sport was hit particularly hard by boycott-related failures. 29 of the 30 medal winners from the 1980 Games in Moscow were missing, 94 of the 100 best lifters were missing. The most successful nation was the People's Republic of China with four gold and two silver medals in the light weight classes. Most of the medals went to Romania - two gold, five silver and one bronze. In the flyweight division, the Chinese Zeng Guogiang won 235 kilograms in front of his compatriot Zhou Peishun , who also lifted 235 kilograms because he was 100 grams lighter, and at the age of 19 he became the youngest Olympic champion in weightlifting to date. With Karl-Heinz Radschinsky in middleweight and Rolf Milser in heavyweight I won two German gold medals, in super heavyweight Manfred Nerlinger won bronze behind the American Mario Martinez and the Olympic champion Dean Lukin from Australia. Lukin was the first Australian Olympic champion in the sport.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Weightlifting
Handball
At Handball Tournament of men in Los Angeles Twelve teams took part. Due to the boycott, the Soviet Union, the GDR, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Cuba did not compete and were replaced by five successors from the European qualification and one from Asia. The FRG, Switzerland, Sweden, Spain and Iceland moved into the tournament, plus South Korea. The Olympic champion was the team from Yugoslavia, which was able to prevail in the final with just 18:17 against the German team under coach Simon Schobel , who included Andreas Thiel and Jochen Fraatz , among others . With 23:19 Romania was able to prevail against Denmark in the game for 3rd place and thus won bronze. Switzerland finished seventh with an 18:17 against Spain.
Six teams started in the women's tournament. Since the USSR, the GDR and Hungary did not start due to the boycott, they were replaced by the FRG, Austria and South Korea. The title was played in a simple round in the mode everyone against everyone. As with the men, gold won the Yugoslav team, which remained undefeated. Behind them, the South Koreans won silver and bronze went to the People's Republic of China. The German team, in which Silvia Schmitt and Petra Platen played, reached fourth place, which was shared with the Americans. The Austrians could not win any of their five games and took sixth place.
See also: Olympic Summer Games 1984 / handball
hockey
In hockey tournament men's twelve teams competed, bringing the number of 1980 doubled. The team of the Soviet Union was not represented due to the boycott and was replaced by Great Britain. The British were the first in Group B to qualify for the semi-finals before Pakistan, but lost 1-0 to Germany. The first in Group A, Australia, also lost their semi-final against Pakistan 1-0. In the match for bronze, the British team prevailed 3-2 against the Australians, who had won the 1983 Champions Trophy in Karachi before Pakistan. The German team, in which Andreas Keller and Carsten Fischer , among others , played, lost 2-1 to the Pakistanis in the final, despite Michael Peter's lead in the meantime. The coach of the Pakistani team was Manzoor Hussain Atif , who became an Olympic champion as a player in 1960 and had coached the Pakistani Olympic championship team as early as 1968.
After the women's hockey tournament made its debut in Moscow in 1980, top teams such as the Netherlands, Germany and Australia took part in Los Angeles for the first time. The defending champions from Zimbabwe were automatically qualified, but waived. The mode was an everyone against everyone tournament. The Dutch women were the favorites as world champions in 1983 and lived up to this role with their Olympic victory. Silver went to the German team and bronze to the home team from the United States.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Hockey
Judo
212 judoka started in eight weight classes. The last time athletes competed in the “Open Class” category, which was no longer part of the competition program for the next games. In judo , the Asian starters dominated. The most successful nation was Japan, whose judoka won half of the possible gold medals and a bronze medal with four titles. Behind was South Korea with two gold, two silver and one bronze medal. The only European winners were the German Frank Wieneke in the light middleweight division and the Austrian Peter Seisenbacher in the middleweight division. Seisenbacher was able to repeat his success four years later in Seoul and was the first to do so in the Olympic history of judo. The Japanese Hitoshi Saitō , who had won gold in the heavyweight division in Los Angeles, also managed to defend his title, but only two days after the Austrian. With Josef Reiter in the light weight division, Günther Neureuther in the light weight division and Arthur Schnabel in the open class, the German-speaking judoka also achieved three bronze medals.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Judo
Canoe racing
A total of 195 drivers - 158 men and 37 women started in canoe racing . In Los Angeles, the women's four-kayak was part of the competition program for the first time. The most successful nation was New Zealand with four gold medals. Ian Ferguson won three of the gold medals, drawing level with Peter Snell , New Zealand's most successful Olympian to date. In the Canadier-One over 1000 meters, the German Ulrich Eicke won gold ahead of the Canadian Larry Cain and the Dane Henning Lynge Jakobsen . Cain became Olympic champion over half the distance, with the Dane taking silver there. The dominant canoeist was Agneta Andersson from Sweden. She won gold in the kayak single and together with Anna Olsson in the kayak two, in the kayak four she also achieved the silver medal. Silver in the kayak single went to the German Barbara Schüttpelz , who won bronze in a double with Josefa Idem , ahead of the Dutch Annemiek Derckx .
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Canoe
athletics
In the athletics competitions , 1280 athletes from 124 teams started - 895 men and 385 women. The dominant nation was the United States with 16 gold, 15 silver, and nine bronze medals. She also provided the most successful participant with Carl Lewis , who had set himself the goal of replicating Jesse Owen's 1936 success. He achieved this with victories in the 100-meter run, in the 200-meter run, with the 4 x 100 meter relay and in the long jump. In the 5000 meter run, the Swiss Markus Ryffel won the silver medal, the only Swiss athletics medal at these games, behind Saïd Aouita from Morocco and ahead of the Portuguese António Leitão . Edwin Moses , who had already won the Olympic gold medal in Montreal in 1976 and was denied the opportunity to defend his title in 1980 due to a boycott , won the 400 meter hurdles ahead of his compatriot Danny Harris and the German Harald Schmid , who had last succeeded in 1977 against Moses Beat distance. Dietmar Mögenburg from Germany won the high jump ahead of the Swede Patrik Sjöberg and the Chinese Zhu Jianhua . The Portuguese Carlos Lopes won the marathon and thus the first ever Olympic gold medal for his country. Behind him were the Irishman John Treacy and the British Charlie Spedding . Both walking titles went to Mexican athletes. Ernesto Canto won the 20 kilometers and Raúl González , who had previously taken silver over the shorter distance, won the 50 kilometers . The throwing disciplines were particularly affected by the boycott. In the hammer throw, which the Finn Juha Tiainen won in front of the Germans Karl-Hans Riehm and Klaus Ploghaus , most of the top 10 in the world were missing. In the discus throw, Rolf Danneberg became Olympic champion. The decathlon won the British Daley Thompson with 8797 points (which were corrected in 1985 after changing the competition table to the world record 8847 points) gold in front of his permanent rival Jürgen Hingsen from the FRG. Thompson defended his title from 1980. The decision was made only in the third from last discipline, the pole vault, in which Hingsen jumped only 4.50 m, while Thompson reached five meters.
The most successful athlete was the American Valerie Brisco-Hooks , who won gold in the 200 and 400 meters and with the 4 x 400 meter relay, each with an Olympic record. Florence Griffith-Joyner , who was the most successful athlete in Seoul, also won her first Olympic medal with silver over 200 meters . Gold in the high jump went to German Ulrike Meyfarth , who had already become Olympic champion in Munich twelve years earlier. The competition in the shot put was decided by the German punter Claudia Losch with the last attempt over 20.48 m ahead of the Romanian Mihaela Loghin , whose width was only one centimeter less. The first Olympic champion in the marathon was Joan Benoit from the USA, followed by Grete Waitz from Norway and the Portuguese Rosa Mota . The heptathlon was won by the Australian Glynis Nunn ahead of the American Jackie Joyner-Kersee , who won the Olympic gold medal in this discipline at the two following games.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Athletics
Modern pentathlon
In modern pentathlon 52 participants started from 18 teams. There was an individual competition and a team competition, the result of which was derived from the individual results. The program consisted of show jumping on the first day, epee fencing on the second day, 300-meter freestyle swimming on the third day and finally the shooting and the final 4000-meter cross-country run. For the first time the competition extended over four days and also for the first time the cross-country run mode was a handicap start, so that the finish corresponded to the final result. The gold medal in the individual was won by the Italian Daniele Masala , who had already finished the Olympics in 1976 and was not allowed to start in Moscow, with 5469 points ahead of the Swede Svante Rasmuson and his compatriot Carlo Massullo . The team title went to Italy. Behind them, the United States and France were able to place in the medal ranks. The Swiss team reached fourth place.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Modern Pentathlon
Cycling
314 cyclists and 45 female cyclists started at the Olympic Games in Los Angeles. The IOC had decided to introduce the men's points race and reduced the maximum number of participants per NOK to three in their road races. In 1983 it also added the women's road race to its program and postponed the introduction of track cycling competitions for women to 1988. The most successful nation was the USA, whose cyclists won half of the possible titles with four gold medals and three silver and two bronze medals. The 190.2 kilometer road race was won by American Alexi Grewal with a sprint of 4:59:57 hours, ahead of Canadian Steve Bauer . Bronze went to the Norwegian Dag Otto Lauritzen . Italy won the 100-kilometer team time trial ahead of Switzerland, for which Alfred Achermann , Richard Trinkler , Laurent Vial and Benno Wiss competed, and the USA. The track cycling competitions took place on an uncovered velodrome with a plastic track. In the competitions, the FRG was able to record some successes. Fredy Schmidtke won gold in the 1000 meter time trial; Rolf Gölz in the 4000 meter pursuit and Uwe Messerschmidt in the points race both won silver and in the team pursuit the German team took bronze. The Olympic debut of women in cycling was won by the American Connie Carpenter-Phinney , who prevailed in the sprint of the road race ahead of her compatriot Rebecca Twigg and the German Sandra Schumacher .
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Cycling
Equestrian sport
157 riders (110 men and 47 women) from 30 nations started in Los Angeles. In dressage , show jumping and eventing they were able to compete in an individual and a team competition. With the dressage team consisting of Reiner Klimke , Uwe Sauer and Herbert Krug , Germany won the gold medal ahead of the teams from Switzerland and Sweden. The twelve best riders from the team competition were allowed to start individually. The gold medal in this competition also went to Klimke, who prevailed over the Danish Anne Grethe Jensen-Törnblad and with the sixth gold medal became the most successful German Olympic athlete of all time. Bronze went to the Swiss Otto Hofer . The American Joe Fargis won the gold medal in the individual show jumping in the jump-off when he prevailed with 0 fault points against his compatriot Conrad Homfeld with 8 fault points. Bronze, also awarded in the jump-off, went to the Swiss Heidi Robbiani , who scored 8 penalty points in the first round and 0 in the jump-off. Mark Todd from New Zealand, who had not won an international championship before and was able to repeat the Olympic victory in Seoul , won the event singles . In the team competitions of show jumping and eventing, the podium was the same: Gold went to the USA before Great Britain and the FRG.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Riding
Wrestling
267 wrestlers from 44 countries competed in Los Angeles. The struggle was among the most severely affected by the boycott sports. In the Greco-Roman style, 20 of the 30 medal winners from Moscow were absent, in freestyle wrestling there were 23. The most successful nation was the United States with nine gold medals, whereby its strength lay mainly in freestyle wrestling. In the paper weight category, the German Markus Scherer won silver behind Vincenzo Maenza from Italy and ahead of the Japanese Ikuzo Saito . Maenza was able to defend his title in Seoul. In the final of the bantamweight freestyle, the German Pasquale Passarelli was already 8-2 ahead of world champion Masaki Eto from Japan when he was about to lose his shoulder and had to survive the last 1:36 minutes in the bridge to win the gold medal. In the featherweight division, Hugo Dietsche from Switzerland won the bronze medal 3-1 against Abdurrahim Kuzu . Martin Knosp from Germany won the silver medal in the welterweight freestyle behind the American David Schultz .
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / wrestling
rowing
There were 447 rowers from 30 countries - 286 men and 161 women. Romania was the most successful nation, winning half of all possible titles with seven gold medals. In the one, Pertti Karppinen became Olympic champion for the third time in a row, setting the record for Vyacheslav Ivanov . Behind him, the German Peter-Michael Kolbe took second and the Canadian Robert Mills third. In two with a helmsman, the Italians Carmine Abbagnale , Giuseppe Abbagnale and Giuseppe Di Capua won their first Olympic gold medal after becoming world champions in this class in 1981 and 1982. The British Steven Redgrave won his first gold medal with the four with a helmsman . The West German double scull won the gold medal as the reigning world champion after beating the GDR at the 1983 World Championships for the first time since the boat class was introduced in 1974. Silver went to Australia, bronze to Denmark. The eighth race was won by the Canadian boat, which after good results at the Rotsee regatta was already counted among the medal candidates in advance. The Canadians prevailed over the Americans and the Australians. In the women's category, all of the gold medals went to Romanians with the exception of eight, in which they won silver behind the United States. In two without a helmsman, the Germans Ellen Becker and Iris Völkner won the bronze medal behind the Canadian boat and the sovereign Romanians Rodica Arba and Elena Horvat , who had already become vice world champions last year.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Rowing
shoot
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Skeet_shooting_event_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics.jpg/220px-Skeet_shooting_event_at_the_1984_Summer_Olympics.jpg)
383 shooters and 77 female shooters were at the start. At the 1980 session, the IOC decided to introduce three disciplines for women and to open the throwing pigeon disciplines to both sexes. In addition, competitions with the air rifle were held for the first time in Los Angeles . The Chinese Xu Haifeng won the competition with the free pistol . He was the first ever Olympic champion and the first medalist in the People's Republic of China. The Frenchman Philippe Heberlé won the gold medal with the air rifle . Behind him, Andreas Kronthaler from Austria and Barry Dagger from Great Britain both shot 587 rings, but the Austrian received the silver medal because he shot 36 rings in the imposition and the British only 22. In the small-bore three-position fight, silver went to Daniel Nipkow from Switzerland, who 1983 in Bad Homburg had won two world titles in crossbow shooting. Olympic champion in this discipline was the Briton Malcolm Cooper , who was able to defend this title in Seoul. The decisions in throwing pigeon shooting were very tight. In the trap, silver and bronze were awarded in the jump-off behind the Olympic champion Luciano Giovannetti from Italy. Second place went to Francisco Boza from Peru with 24 points ahead of Daniel Carlisle from the USA with 22 points. In the skeet, the second and third placed scored 192 points each; Ole Riber Rasmussen from Denmark won in the following jump-off with 25 points silver in front of the Italian Luca Scribani Rossi , who reached 23 points. The decision with the sport pistol for women was extremely tight. The Canadian Linda Thom won gold in the third jump-off against the American Ruby Fox with 49:48. In the small caliber three-position battle, silver went to the German Ulrike Holmer behind the Chinese Wu Xiaoxuan , who had already won bronze with an air rifle three days earlier.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Shooting
swim
A total of 494 athletes competed in the 29 swimming competitions - 308 men and 186 women. There were also 50 synchronized swimmers , 45 water divers , 35 water divers and 146 water polo players . In 1983 the IOC allowed FINA to host synchronized swimming competitions; In addition, it was decided in 1980 to resume the 200-meter medley competitions and the men's 4-by-100-meter freestyle relay in the program.
Only nine of the 29 titles in the swimming competitions went to swimmers who were not from the United States. The Americans managed to win all seasons. The most successful swimmers were two Americans with three gold medals each: Ambrose Gaines won the 100 meter freestyle, with the 4 x 100 meter freestyle relay and the 4 x 100 meter relay, while Richard Carey won the 100 and 200 meters back, as well as with the 4 x 100 meter relay relay. The German Michael Groß , however, was able to collect most of the medals, who was Olympic champion in the 200 meter freestyle and 100 meter butterfly as well as the 200 meter butterfly and silver with the 4 x 200 meter relay in each world record time. In the 400 meter freestyle, the B-Finals held in Los Angeles for the first time resulted in a one-off event when the German Thomas Fahrner , who had missed the final by 19 hundredths of a second in ninth place, set an Olympic record with 3: 50.91 minutes and was there was faster than the Olympic champion George DiCarlo from the USA. The most successful swimmers were Tracy Caulkins with gold in the 200 and 400 meter medley and with the individual relay, and Mary T. Meagher , who won gold in the 100 and 200 meter butterfly and with the individual relay. Behind the United States, the German layer relay with Svenja Schlicht , Ute Hasse , Ina Beyermann , who took third place over 200 meter medley, and Karin Seick , who won bronze over 100 meter medley, came second.
With eight out of twelve possible medals, the USA was the dominant team in diving. In the men's category, Greg Louganis won the gold medal from both the board and the tower, each with a sovereign advantage. The silver medalist from the board, Tan Liangde of the People's Republic of China, was 92.1 points behind; the one from the tower, Bruce Kimball from the USA, scored 67.41 points less than his compatriot. The women won the Canadian Sylvie Bernier from the board and the Chinese Zhou Jihong from the tower. Two Americans were able to place behind both of them. In synchronized swimming, which was held for the first time, there was a solo and a duet competition. In both, gold went to the USA, silver to Canada and bronze to Japan. The American Tracie Ruiz was a two-time Olympic champion. Carolyn Waldo , who was double Olympic champion in Seoul, placed behind her in the solo .
Twelve teams competed in the water polo tournament. The placements were played out in a group system in which the teams were classified after the preliminary round. The Olympic victory went to the team from Yugoslavia, behind which the team from the United States with Terry Schroeder achieved silver. Bronze went to the team from Germany, in which Frank Otto and Peter Röhle played, among others .
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Swimming , 1984 Summer Olympics / Diving and 1984 Summer Olympics / Water polo
sailing
298 men and two women took part in the sailing competitions. The seven boat classes were open to both sexes. For the first time there was the competition in windsurfing , which had been decided at the session in 1980, while the introduction of all women’s disciplines was still a long time coming. In the Star class, the German duo Joachim Griese and Michael Marcour won the silver medal behind the boat from the USA and ahead of the Italians. The boat of the American Robbie Haines in the Soling class was already in the lead after six races, so that he did not contest the last race at all. The first Olympic champion in windsurfing was the Dutchman Stephan van den Berg , who was able to prevail over the American Scott Steele and the New Zealander Bruce Kendall .
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / Sailing
do gymnastics
65 gymnasts and 71 gymnasts took part in the Olympic competitions. In 1980 the FIG decided to introduce a minimum age of 15 years for women and 16 years for men. A dominant nation could not be made out, the USA, Romania and the People's Republic of China each won five gold medals. The USA won the men's team all-around match ahead of the People's Republic of China and Japan. This victory was not only due to their own strength and home advantage, but also to partisan judges' decisions. The most successful gymnast was the Chinese Li Ning ; he won gold on the ground, on the rings and on the pommel horse, silver in the horse jump and in the team all-around and bronze in the individual all-around. Among the gymnasts, the Romanian Ecaterina Szabó was the outstanding athlete with gold medals in the team all- around , on the balance beam, on the floor and in the horse jump, as well as silver in the individual all-around.
The all-round competition of rhythmic gymnastics suffered from the absence of the best female athletes. Because of the boycott, all medal winners from the 1983 World Cup were absent. Gold went to the Canadian Lori Fung , behind whom Doina Stăiculescu from Romania and Regina Weber from Germany won silver and bronze.
See also: Olympic Summer Games 1984 / Gymnastics and Olympic Summer Games 1984 / Rhythmic Gymnastics
volleyball
In the volleyball tournaments, the two best of the preliminary round groups reached the semi-finals, while the other teams played the places. Ten teams started for the men. The team from the USA, in which Craig Buck and Charles Kiraly played, among others , won the gold medal ahead of the teams from Brazil and Italy. In the women’s category, the Chinese won ahead of the US team led by Flora Hyman . The Japanese team won bronze.
See also: 1984 Summer Olympics / volleyball
Outstanding athletes
The most successful female athlete at the 1984 Summer Olympics was the Romanian gymnast Ecaterina Szabó , who won four gold and one silver medal. Behind her was the American athlete Carl Lewis with four gold medals. The gymnast Li Ning from China won the most medals and won three gold, two silver and one bronze medal. The youngest participant was the rower Philippe Cuelenaere from Belgium with 12 years and 334 days, the oldest was the Spanish shooter Luis del Cerro with 60 years and 85 days. The German high jumper Ulrike Meyfarth managed to win the gold medal again twelve years after her victory in Munich in 1972. She was the youngest and oldest Olympic champion in this discipline. With the archer Neroli Fairhall from New Zealand, a paraplegic athlete took part in the Olympic Games for the first time.
athlete | team | Sports |
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![]() |
![]() |
total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ecaterina Szabó |
![]() |
do gymnastics | 4th | 1 | 0 | 5 |
Carl Lewis |
![]() |
athletics | 4th | 0 | 0 | 4th |
Li Ning |
![]() |
do gymnastics | 3 | 2 | 1 | 6th |
Michael Heath |
![]() |
swim | 3 | 1 | 0 | 4th |
Nancy Hogshead |
![]() |
swim | 3 | 1 | 0 | 4th |
doping
For the doping controls , the LAOOC set up its own doping laboratory at UCLA , since until then the only laboratory in North America that met the requirements of the IOC was in Montreal . On November 30, 1983, the IOC accredited the laboratory at the university so that it could take over the doping controls at the games. The IOC requested 2,000 doping controls, while the LAOOC only wanted 1,500 athletes to be tested. In the end, the organizing committee prevailed and had 1502 athletes tested during the 15 days of competition.
Eleven doping tests for steroids to build muscle were positive, two of which were from medalists who had to return their medals. The Finnish 10,000-meter runner Martti Vainio and the Swedish Greco-Roman-style super heavyweight wrestler Tomas Johansson , who had both achieved silver, were convicted of doping with the anabolic steroid methenolone and banned for at least a year. A hammer thrower and a volleyball player were found guilty of testosterone doping, and two other athletes and five weightlifters of all weight classes tested positive for nandrolone . At least ten other doped people did not have to fear any consequences because their positive tests had disappeared from the hotel room of IOC medical director Alexandre de Mérode .
In retrospect, confidential USOC records were made public that revealed that 34 US athletes tested positive in secret doping tests prior to the Games, but had not been banned. These tests were designed to prevent traces of doping from being discovered in the games. The United States was also under pressure that the Moscow Games had officially been celebrated as the first doping-free Olympic Games in history and that the United States wanted to follow suit in 1984.
With 1610 gender tests, the number of medical tests to confirm the gender of all female starters registered was greater than the number of doping tests. Cheek mucous membrane swabs were taken from 88% of the participants and examined for Y chromosomes , since the remaining 12% already had "femininity certificates" from the IOC Medical Commission . The samples were taken before the athletes' first competition in the polyclinics of the three Olympic villages and tested in a central laboratory within 24 hours. Ambiguous test results led to consultations with the IOC Medical Commission . The LAOOC did not release any official results to protect the dignity of those affected. Nevertheless, a number of six female athletes are assumed whose first test results were “male”.
Commercialization and Criticism
The 1984 Los Angeles Games resulted in heavy commercialization of the Olympic Games (see Commercialization ). The official sponsors, who contributed part of the financing of the LAOOC budget, could advertise with this status. So used Coca-Cola advertising slogan " Official soft drinks of the Olympics " and appreciated his success at 21 million sold drinks during competitions. Levi Strauss turned the equipment of the American Olympic team into an effective public choice. McDonald’s launched the “ When the US wins, you win ” promotion , in which customers could scratch off Olympic disciplines and receive a free Big Mac for an American gold medal in this discipline , a Coke for silver fries and bronze . The unexpected costs of the numerous gold medals in the absence of the Soviet team led to a great financial loss, which was alluded to in the 1992 television series The Simpsons .
Due to the lack of public funds, the LAOOC also relied on the sponsors who financed new buildings when building new sports facilities. That was the only reason why Los Angeles' budget could be $ 470 million, while the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow cost the equivalent of $ 9 billion and Montreal spent $ 1.5 billion four years earlier and then went into debt.
The marketing of the games met with some severe criticism. The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung wrote that “the spirit of profit and capitalist thinking accompany the preparations”, Mario Pescante from the NOK of Italy warned that the Americans would treat the Olympics as “any business enterprise”. Maureen Kindel himself was a member of the LAOOC board of directors who was “worried that the soul, the magic of the games, would be damaged”. The President of the LAOOC, Peter Ueberroth , however, was of the opinion that this type of funding would be "a model for future Olympic Games". In fact, the organizers in Seoul and Calgary based themselves on the LAOOC, sponsoring became part of the Olympic Games, which in Atlanta in 1996 was very much exhausted. On the other hand, there were voices that promised an end to Olympic mendacity through open commercialization:
"And whether Levi's or McDonald's now transfer funds to committees that are in the association register or those that do private accounts - they and many others have been involved for a long time."
reporting
The Los Angeles Summer Olympics press officer was Richard B. Perelman . A total of 8,700 journalists, technicians and other media employees were accredited. 4,863 television and radio employees alone were present to report on the Olympic Games.
The LAOOC raised a total of $ 286.764 million from the sale of the television rights. The American Broadcasting Company alone paid 225 million, followed by the European Broadcasting Union with 19.8 million and Japan with 18.5 million. In return, the contract with ABC contained the assurance “that Olympic competitions, which are particularly popular with Americans, will take place at favorable airtime.” ABC not only broadcast the games in the USA, but also produced the worldview that all stations used . ABC put a total of 180 hours of the Olympics on TV with 216 cameras. The daily broadcast was divided into four sections. From eight to eleven o'clock there was a morning broadcast in the style of Good Morning America , in which only rowing and canoeing was reported live. Between 1 and 2:30 p.m., ABC broadcast the first decisions of the day and between 4 and 9 p.m. all important decisions. Follow-up reports followed from 9:30 p.m. to 11 p.m.
Every minute of advertising on these shows earned the station $ 250,000. All of ABC's advertising space was sold out by mid-1983 for a total of $ 615 million. In some cases, ABC gave free advertising minutes to companies whose advertising had suffered during the 1984 Winter Olympics from reduced audience ratings due to the early departure of the American ice hockey team and the postponement of the downhill race. In Germany, ARD and ZDF broadcast the games. The images differed only slightly from those in the USA, since the worldview from ABC was used. In addition to the share for the image rights, the costs for the German broadcasters were estimated at 17 million D-Marks, as studio rooms, technical equipment and decoration, as well as speaker positions in the stadiums had to be paid for separately for the first time.
literature
- Volker Kluge : Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 .
- Olympic Sports Library (Ed.): Los Angeles '84 . Prosport Verlag für Sport und Kultur, 1984.
- Bill Dwyre: Los Angeles Times 1984 Olympic Sports Pages . Harry N. Abrams, 1984, ISBN 0-8109-1286-4 .
- Zander Hollander, Phyllis Hollander (Eds.): The Complete Handbook of the Summer Olympic Games: 1984 Los Angeles . Signet, 1984, ISBN 0-451-12885-0 .
- Los Angeles 1984. The FAZ Olympic Book . Limpert Verlag, 1985, ISBN 3-7853-1435-3 .
- Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . 2 volumes. Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 (Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Volume 2: Competition Summary and Results ). Online at la84foundation.org in six parts: Volume 1, Part 1 (PDF; 26.1 MB); Volume 1, Part 2 (PDF; 12.3 MB); Volume 1, Part 3 (PDF; 21.0 MB); Volume 2, Part 1 (PDF; 24.1 MB); Volume 2, Part 2 (PDF; 11.1 MB); Volume 2, Part 3 (PDF; 11.4 MB); Retrieved September 30, 2009.
Web links
- Los Angeles 1984. Games of the XXIII Olympiad . On olympic.org, Official Homepage of the Olympic Movement (English)
- 1984 Los Angeles Summer Games . On sports-reference.com (English)
- LA84 Foundation . Official homepage at la84foundation.org (English)
Individual evidence
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 881.
- ↑ a b Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 882.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 883.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 884.
- ↑ a b Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 885.
- ↑ Michael O'Hara ( Memento October 4, 2013 in the Internet Archive ). In: Volleyball Hall of Fame (volleyhall.org), 2005.
- ↑ a b c Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 888.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 890.
- ↑ http://www.aafla.org/20thAnniversary.pdf (link not available)
- ↑ a b Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 892.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 893.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 894.
- ↑ Russia has been spreading fake news not just since Putin , Die Welt, March 18, 2018
- ↑ Smith says Soviet forged KKK letters to several nations , United Press International , August 6, 1984
- ↑ a b Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 895.
- ^ A b Juan Antonio Samaranch Torello. Sports official . In: Munzinger Archive 43/2002.
- ↑ a b Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 889.
- ↑ a b c d Steffen Haffner: The Olympic Congress of Baden-Baden or the end of the amateur age ( Memento from February 15, 2010 in the Internet Archive ). In: Olympic Fire 5/2006, p. 44f. (PDF, 5.26 MB).
- ↑ a b Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 887.
- ^ A b Village: USC . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 161. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), Part 1, p. 183, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ↑ a b Village: UCLA . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 171. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), Part 1, p. 193, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ^ Village: UC Santa Barbara . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 179. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), part 1, p. 201, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ^ Olympic Games. Los Angeles 1984 - The emblem ( October 1, 2006 memento on the Internet Archive ). Retrieved September 30, 2009 from olympic.org.
- ↑ Mascot: Sam the Olympic Eagle . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 246. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), part 1, p. 268, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ^ Olympic Games. Los Angeles 1984 - The mascot ( Memento October 1, 2006 on the Internet Archive ). Retrieved September 30, 2009 from olympic.org.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i Hans Joachim Schöps: Incredibly abused, abused in cold blood . In: Der Spiegel . No. 32 , 1983, pp. 112-122 ( online ).
- ^ Olympic Games. Los Angeles 1984 - The torch ( October 1, 2006 memento on the Internet Archive ). Retrieved September 30, 2009 from olympic.org.
- ↑ The Olympic torch . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 299. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), part 1, p. 321, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ^ Equipment and logistics of the relay . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 811. la84foundation.org (PDF; 21.0 MB), part 3, p. 239, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ↑ a b Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 899.
- ^ Staging and Performance of the Opening Ceremonies . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 212. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), part 1, p. 234, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 898.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 891.
- ↑ a b Olympic flame on the way to Los Angeles , in Pforzheimer Zeitung of May 8, 1984, p. 9
- ↑ a b c Relay operations . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 816. la84foundation.org (PDF; 21.0 MB), part 3, p. 244, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ↑ The states traversed were New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, Nevada, and California. For the route cf. Olympic Games Torch Relay 1984 Los Angeles ( Memento of 23 September 2013 Internet Archive ). From: olympic-museum.de, accessed on September 30, 2009.
- ↑ Relay operations . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 817. la84foundation.org (PDF; 21.0 MB), part 3, p. 245, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ↑ a b c d e f g Opening Ceremonies . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , pp. 200-215. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), Part 1, pp. 222-237, accessed on September 30, 2009.
- ^ Staging and performance of the Closing Ceremonies . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 218. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), part 1, p. 240, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ↑ a b c Staging and performance of the Closing Ceremonies . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , pp. 219f. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), Part 1, pp. 241f., accessed on September 30, 2009.
- ^ Staging and performance of the Closing Ceremonies . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 221. la84foundation.org (PDF; 26.1 MB), part 1, p. 243, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1092.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1083.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1084.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , pp. 1082f.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1088.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1117.
- ^ Football at the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Games: Men's Football . Accessed September 30, 2009 at sports-reference.com.
- ↑ a b Volker Kluge: Summer Olympic Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1076.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1077.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1078.
- ^ Hockey at the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Games: Men's Hockey . Accessed September 30, 2009 at sports-reference.com.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1086.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. Die Chronik IV. Seoul 1988 - Atlanta 1996. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-328-00830-6 , p. 276.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1058.
- ^ Athletics at the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Games . Accessed September 30, 2009 at sports-reference.com.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1093.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1095.
- ↑ A success despite boycott ( Memento from February 20, 2013 in the web archive archive.today ). In: Rheinische Post , July 12, 2008, accessed on September 30, 2009.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1094.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1079.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1112.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1090.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1102.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , pp. 1115f.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1099.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1101.
- ↑ Volker Kluge: Olympic Summer Games. The Chronicle III. Mexico City 1968 - Los Angeles 1984. Sportverlag Berlin, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-328-00741-5 , p. 1048.
- ^ Development of the laboratory facility . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 354. la84foundation.org (PDF; 12.4 MB), part 2, p. 52, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ^ Doping control . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , pp. 357f. la84foundation.org (PDF; 12.4 MB), part 2, p. 55 f., accessed on September 30, 2009.
- ^ Competitors disqualified by the IOC Medical Commission . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 2: Competition Summary and Results . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , p. 223. la84foundation.org (PDF; 12.4 MB), part 1, p. 174, accessed September 30, 2009 .
- ^ A b Jörg Winterfeldt: Los Angeles 1984. Doping revelations spoil the Olympic anniversary . In: Welt Online, August 5, 2009.
- ↑ a b c Gender verification . In: Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee: Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad. Los Angeles, 1984 . Volume 1: Organization and Planning . Edited by Richard B. Perelman, Los Angeles 1985, ISBN 0-9614512-0-3 , pp. 358f. la84foundation.org (PDF; 12.4 MB), part 2, p. 56f., accessed on September 30, 2009.
- ↑ Ross Tucker: Semenya and hermaphroditism. Hermaphroditism in sport: More on the latest Caster Semenya allegations ( Memento of September 14, 2009 in the Internet Archive ). In: The Science of Sport , September 11, 2009, accessed October 1, 2009.
- ↑ Pamela G. Hollie: Advertising: Big Mac's Olympic Giveaway . In: The New York Times , Aug 10, 1984, Late City Final Edition, Section D, p. 14.
- ↑ In episode 10 of the fourth season, titled In the Beginning Was the Word (Original: Lisa's First Word ), the fictional fast food chain Krusty Burgers makes big losses through such an advertising campaign.
- ↑ Los Angeles 1984. The FAZ Olympic Book . Limpert Verlag, 1985, ISBN 3-7853-1435-3 , p. 19.