Olympic history of Germany

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The Olympic history of Germany began in the German Empire and includes the Weimar Republic , the Third Reich , the Saarland , the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany (until 1990) and from 1990 the reunited Germany . Germany has so far participated in 25 of the 28 Summer Olympics and 18 of the 20 Winter Olympics. In 1920, 1924 and 1948 Germany was not invited as a result of the First and Second World Wars. In 1980 the Federal Republic of Germany participated in the Olympic boycottthe Games in Moscow, while the German Democratic Republic participated. In 1984 in Los Angeles the FRG took part, but the GDR boycotted.

Germany was chosen as the venue five times, whereby the 1916 Games in Berlin and the 1940 Winter Games, which were awarded to Germany as a replacement in June 1939, were canceled due to the war. In 1931 both games of 1936 were awarded to Germany, the Winter Games to Garmisch-Partenkirchen and the Summer Games to Berlin. The second Summer Olympics in Germany were held in Munich in 1972 .

Founding of the IOC

The Olympic history of Germany began before 1894, since excavations of ancient Olympia have been led by German archaeologists since 1875 . The finds there were, however, less spectacular than those in Pergamon , Troy and other sites. Due to the tense relationship with France, there was little sympathy in Germany with the initiative of the French Pierre de Coubertin to want to hold the new Olympic Games of the modern era in his hometown Paris, of all places, instead of in traditional Greece or, as a kind of traveling circus, internationally changing.

The German gymnasts were not invited to the establishment of the International Olympic Committee in 1894 at the Paris Sorbonne . Coubertin had invited sports associations from all over the world, but allegedly could not find the address of what was then the world's largest gymnastics association from a German point of view. The resulting mistrust contributed significantly to the rejection of the Olympic idea in large circles in German sport.

According to the German press, Pierre de Coubertin is said to have made the statement that he “perhaps deliberately” kept Germany away, as this would directly keep out a potential disruptive factor. Although he was also influenced by the Franco-German enmity , he had no desire for revanchism . In order to achieve the goal of "All Games - All Nations" , Germany, which is also important in terms of sport, could not be blocked from joining the Olympic movement in the long term.

The most important advocate of the Olympic idea in Germany was Willibald Gebhardt . His efforts to get Germany to participate in the first Olympic Games in Athens in 1896 were marked by fierce opposition, especially from the German Gymnastics Association (DT) . He owed his admission to the IOC primarily to the intercession of the then IOC President Dimitrios Vikelas , who was able to convince Coubertin of the importance of a German representative.

German criticism of the Olympic movement

The majority of German sports officials refused to participate in international competitions in favor of local people. For example, FA Schmidt , the chairman of the Central Committee for Popular and Youth Games, said: “May the attempts at international unification develop as they wish: what is most important to us is the representation and fighting side by side and among each other on our German soil, none international, but truly national competitions ” . The statement shows that they wanted to differentiate themselves from other nations on the sporting level. In addition, there was the statement "Clear the way for the German Olympics" , which indicates the planned establishment of a national parallel movement that later culminated in German fighting games .

Establishment of the National Olympic Committee

On December 13, 1895, at the instigation of Willibald Gebhardt, a National Olympic Committee was founded in the hotel “At the Four Seasons” in Berlin . Hereditary Prince Philipp Ernst zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst took over the presidency of the committee , Albert von Schleswig-Holstein became vice-president and Gebhardt became secretary. However, the organization had financial difficulties, so that only shortly before the participation in the first Summer Olympics, an advertising event in the Kroll Halls secured the financing of the participation.

The Olympic Games up to World War I (1896–1912)

In the beginning of the Olympic Games, the following six games were played:

• 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens
• 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris
• 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis
• Olympic Intermediate Games in Athens in 1906
• 1908 Summer Olympics in London
• 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm

At the first Summer Olympic Games in Athens in 1896 , Germany took part with the second largest team, which only consisted of 21 athletes. The German Olympic team, which was not supported by the German Gymnastics Association, provided Carl Schuhmann, the most successful athlete of the first games. He won the wrestling and horse jumping disciplines and was a member of the parallel bars and the horizontal bar team , which also won their disciplines. The two successful teams also included Alfred Flatow and Gustav Felix Flatow from Berlin . The two Jewish cousins ​​were persecuted by the National Socialists and died in the Theresienstadt ghetto in 1942 and 1945 . Up to second place from August Gödrich in Radmarathon and Friedrich Traun in tennis -Double all German medals in Athens were won by the gymnasts. Hermann Weingärtner won the individual competition on the horizontal bar and the team competitions on the horizontal bar and parallel bars. He achieved second places in the rings and in the pommel horse. He also came third in the individual competition on parallel bars. This made him the most successful athlete at the Games in terms of the total number of medals.

The 1900 Olympic Games in Paris were again boycotted by the German Gymnastics Association as Pierre de Coubertin's home game. In addition, they did not want to travel to the capital of the archenemy. Chauvinistic graffiti on the accommodation of the German team and provocations in their direction can also be traced back to this hostility . Despite the boycott, individual gymnasts found themselves ready to break the strike. However, they could not win a medal in the only gymnastics competition held, the individual all-around competition, because here the French dominated on both sides of the scoring. In contrast, this time the German swimmers won the winner's medal. Martin Wiesner , who won the regatta in the class one to two tons with his yacht Cinderella and achieved second place in the honor drive , and the victorious rowers in the four without a helmsman contributed further medals . The second place of the Frankfurt football club in the Olympic rugby tournament is a specialty , as the Germans lost to the host France in the only game of the tournament.

The need for a permanent national body that would be responsible for the interests of Germany's participation in the Olympic Games became essential. In 1903, at the renewed instigation of Willibald Gebhardt, a committee for the Olympic Games in St. Louis in 1904 was founded. After the "Central Committee for Popular and Youth Games" was convinced to participate, the name of the committee was changed at a meeting in December 1903 to German Reich Committee for the Olympic Games (DRAfOS). Gebhardt was elected to the position of managing director and first secretary. Count Egbert von der Asseburg took over the presidency .

In 1904 in St. Louis , the Germans made the largest European team with 17 participants. IOC President Pierre de Coubertin did not travel to the USA, he was represented by Willibald Gebhardt, who was also the “Chef de Mission” of the Germans. With four gold, four silver and four bronze medals, Germany was second in the medal table behind hosts USA.

Germany sent 47 athletes to the 1906 Olympic Intermediate Games in Athens , which were to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the Games, as well as some Olympic champions from 1896 such as Alfred Flatow and Carl Schuhmann as guests of honor. 15 medals were won. The unbeatable tug of war team secured a gold medal . On the other hand, the participating gymnasts disappointed again. This disgraceful performance prompted the gymnastics officials to give up their boycott in order not to let the reputation of the German gymnasts be further damaged. Since the participation of individual athletes could not be prevented, the best gymnasts were allowed to start from now on. Despite this rapprochement between the gymnasts and the Olympic movement, the final reconciliation was only to be enforced by the national socialists' “ conformity ”.

The best German gymnasts took part in the fourth official Summer Olympics in London in 1908 for the first time, but only for demonstration purposes. German athletes achieved a total of 14 medals here. At the Summer Olympics in Stockholm in 1912 , German athletes achieved 25 medals, but again none in gymnastics.

During World War I (1916)

Before the First World War , games were awarded to Germany:

• 1916 Summer Olympics in Berlin

At the beginning of the century there had been efforts to bring the Olympic Games to Germany. However, this was also countered by the lack of a real stadium . So you had to postpone the application again and again. In 1913, the German Stadium in Berlin's Grunewald was opened by Kaiser Wilhelm II .

The foundation stone for the application was laid with the construction of the stadium. Berlin prevailed in 1912 when the games were awarded against Alexandria , Amsterdam , Brussels , Budapest and Cleveland . The organization was headed by the hussar general and former Prussian minister Victor von Podbielski , who had been chairman of the German Reich Committee for the Olympic Games since 1909, and his general secretary Carl Diem . There were over 400 sponsors for the 1916 Olympic Games . The games were canceled due to the events following the attack in Sarajevo , which resulted in an unexpectedly long war. However, they have not been officially canceled.

The Olympic Games during the Weimar Republic (1920–1932)

The following Olympic Games were held between 1920 and 1932:

Without German participation

• 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp
• 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix
• 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris

With German participation

• Olympic Winter Games 1928 in St. Moritz
• 1928 Summer Olympic Games in Amsterdam
• 1932 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid
• 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles

After the defeat in World War I was in the area Paris suburb contracts decided not Germany and its allies at the Summer Olympics in 1920 for involvement, regardless of there now took place change of power and the establishment of democratic republics. This particularly affected Budapest, which was once set as the venue and was withdrawn from the games in favor of Antwerp . When in 1924 the first Olympic Winter Games and Summer Games for the second time in Paris took place, the former allies were allowed to participate again. Germany alone remained excluded from the games (and was still partially occupied by France ( occupation of the Ruhr )).

As early as 1917, the German Reich Committee for the Olympic Games was replaced by the German Reich Committee for Physical Exercise (DRA, DRAfL), which was the umbrella organization for sport in Germany during the Weimar Republic . The DRA responds to the exclusion from the Olympic Games by holding German fighting games . The fighting games were played every four years between 1922 and 1930 as winter and summer games.

In 1925 the national sports umbrella organization and the Olympic Committee separated: The German Olympic Committee (DOA) split off from the DRA and forced Germany's re-admission to the Olympic Games. At the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz , ten years after the end of the war, Germany returned to the Olympic family. This German premiere at the Winter Games was not very successful with a bronze medal. In contrast, the participation in the summer games in Amsterdam with eleven gold, nine silver and 19 bronze medals was a complete success.

In May 1930, the ninth general assembly of the International Olympic Committee took place in Berlin, before the 1936 Olympic Games were awarded to Germany in Barcelona in 1931.

In 1932 in Los Angeles , the German athletes collected 20 medals. In addition, Franz and Toni Schmid were honored with the Olympic mountaineering prize Prix ​​olympique d'alpinisme for the first ascent of the north face of the Matterhorn .

The Olympic Games during National Socialism (1936–1944)

During the Nazi dictatorship, only the 1936 Olympic Games were held:

• Olympic Winter Games 1936 in Garmisch-Partenkirchen
• 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin

Other games fell victim to World War II:

• Olympic Winter Games 1940 in Sapporo (awarded alternatively to St. Moritz and later to Garmisch-Partenkirchen )
• Summer Olympics 1940 in Tokyo ( awarded to Helsinki as an alternative )
• 1944 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo
• 1944 Summer Olympics in London

In 1936 the Summer Olympics took place in Berlin and the Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen . Both games were awarded to Germany on May 13, 1931, during the Weimar Republic . Adolf Hitler originally had no interest in the games, but Joseph Goebbels convinced him of their propaganda effect. In order not to endanger this effect, repression against Jews was limited and openness to the world was simulated. The main venue was the Reichssportfeld with the Olympic Stadium , which offered space for 100,000 spectators, the swimming stadium and the Dietrich-Eckart open-air stage. The German organizers also carried out the first torch relay in Olympic history. The last runner to light the Olympic flame was Fritz Schilgen . When the teams marched in, several greeted them with the “Olympic salute”, which was later often misunderstood as a Hitler salute.

From a sporting point of view, the 1936 Summer Olympics brought great German successes. Hans Woellke won the first gold medal in athletics by winning the shot put . As a result, Karl Hein won the hammer throw and Gerhard Stöck the javelin throw . The German gymnasts were among the most successful athletes in the games. Konrad Frey was the most successful medal collector. He won in the all-around competition with the team, on the pommel horse and on bars gold, on the horizontal bar silver and on the floor, as well as in the all-around individual bronze. In addition, Alfred Schwarzmann won five medals, two of them gold in the twelve fight and in the horse jump. The favored wrestler Werner Seelenbinder only reached fourth place in the Greco-Roman light heavyweight division. He joined the KPD in 1928 and was sentenced to death by the People's Court in 1944 for allegedly supporting a KPD courier. In the women's javelin, the Germans Tilly Fleischer and Luise Krüger won a double victory. The successful German athletes won a medal in every competition with the exception of the 4 x 100 meter relay. The season was in the lead until the last change, when Marie Dollinger dropped the baton.

For a long time, legends revolved around Hitler's presence and his congratulations to German athletes and his alleged refusal to congratulate non-German winners. After paying his respects to German Olympic champions on the first day, he was advised not to congratulate everyone or anyone, and he refrained from further appearances. In his presence, the German soccer team also lost and eliminated.

The black American Jesse Owens made sports history: He was the first athlete to win four gold medals at the Olympic Games ( 100 m , long jump , 200 m , and 4 × 100 m relay ). In the long jump, Owens threatened to fail in qualification after two failed attempts. The German Luz Long , who was in the lead with a new Olympic record at the time, gave him an indication of where Owens qualified and ultimately won gold, while Long only remained silver.

The Olympic Games during the East-West Conflict (1948–1988)

These Olympic Games took place in this epoch:

• Olympic Winter Games 1948 in St. Moritz
• 1948 Summer Olympics in London
• 1952 Olympic Winter Games in Oslo
• 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki
• 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo
• 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne
• 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley
• 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome
• Olympic Winter Games 1964 in Innsbruck
• 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo
• 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble
• 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City
• 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo
• 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich
• Olympic Winter Games 1976 in Innsbruck
• 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal
• 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid
• 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow
• 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo
• 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles
• 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary
• 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul

The reorganization of the Olympic movement in Germany

After the end of the Second World War , the Allied Control Council issued Directive No. 23 on December 17, 1945, which dissolved all sports organizations. In November 1946, Carl Diem applied to the American military government in Frankfurt am Main for permission to re-establish a National Olympic Committee , but this was rejected. Since a separate NOK was a prerequisite for participating in the 1948 Olympic Games, a provisional German Olympic Committee was founded on June 7, 1947 . The IOC did not recognize this committee as a German NOK, since the territory of Germany was still divided into four Allied occupation zones at that time and therefore did not represent a recognized state. As a result, Germany was not invited to the 1948 Games.

Another reason for not considering Germany was its role as the catalyst for World War II . The important former opponents of the war, Great Britain , France (from 1939) and the Soviet Union and the USA (from 1941) were not particularly interested in its participation. Nevertheless, Carl Diem, who was friends with IOC President Sigfrid Edström , and Helmut Bantz indirectly took part in the games. The gymnast Bantz looked after the British gymnasts as a prisoner of war .

After the beginning of the Cold War and the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany in May 1949, the West German National Olympic Committee for Germany was founded in Bonn on September 24, 1949 . IOC member Adolf Friedrich Herzog zu Mecklenburg became the first chairman . The NOK, located in the Federal Republic of Germany, considered itself to be the Olympic representation of all of Germany within the scope of its claim to sole representation, although the German-German differences intensified after the founding of the GDR on October 7, 1949. This also manifested itself in the formation of a separate National Olympic Committee for East Germany on April 22, 1951, after the representatives of the GDR were unable to penetrate their proposal for an all-German NOK.

In 1950, the IOC recommended the admission of Germany (i.e. the NOK based in the Federal Republic of Germany) and its participation in the Olympic Games in 1952. As early as 1950, Saarland had been awarded its own NOK recognized by the IOC as well as its own FIFA membership.

The IOC recorded the West German NOK for Germany during a session between May 7 and 9, 1951. The later application submitted by the East German NOK, which had only been formed weeks earlier, was rejected on the formal grounds that one country could not be represented by two national Olympic associations. At the same time, the IOC urged the two German committees to negotiate immediately about an all-German NOK and a joint team for the Olympic Games. With the "Lausanne Agreement" of May 22, 1951, the negotiating delegations agreed a solution according to which, according to the IOC rules, there could only be one NOK, and that would be the West German one. The communiqué also states that a joint team should be formed for the 1952 Olympic Games, for which the NOK-West is responsible according to the majority of the votes. On September 6, 1951, however, the East German NOK, led by Kurt Edel , terminated the agreement because the GDR leadership did not even see their minimal demands for equal rights for the NOK in the team formation being implemented with the result of the negotiations. No agreement was reached in the subsequent negotiations. On February 8, 1952, when a conference between the two NOK and IOC members was planned in Copenhagen , the GDR functionaries made the IOC members wait, which led to the talks not being held. The athletes of the GDR did not take part in the Olympic Winter Games in Oslo .

Otherwise, the first participation of the western part of Germany after the war was successful, although concerns about the occupation time in Norway had been expressed in advance . However, the Norwegians welcomed the German team fairly. In the nations ranking, Germany took fourth place. Andreas Ostler's two-man and four-man bobsleigh won gold, as did Ria Baran and Paul Falk , who took first place in the couple's figure skating . Since the question of the German national anthem was not clarified until April 29, 1952, the melody of the Deutschlandlied was not heard at the awards ceremony , but the main theme Ode to Joy from the fourth movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's 9th Symphony .

At the Olympic Summer Games in Helsinki in 1952, the rider Fritz Thiedemann began his career with two bronze medals. In addition, the gymnast Alfred Schwarzmann , who was already successful in 1936, won silver on the horizontal bar. In addition to the team of the NOK for Germany, to which no GDR athletes were sent, Saarland also took part in the Olympic Games for the first and last time as an independent NOK with its own team. The 36 Saarland athletes sent out could not win a medal, but some did so four years later as part of the all-German team.

All-German team

The Soviet Union tried several times to have the GDR's NOK included in the IOC, but these initiatives failed because of IOC President Avery Brundage . The NOK for Germany, located in the FRG, insisted on the right to sole representation for Germany, and thus also for East Germany. By 1956, the sports officials of the GDR achieved that the GDR sports associations were included in almost all important international sports associations. However, Brundage continued to rely on the model of a united German team. The GDR's preliminary admission to the IOC took place on June 17, 1955 with 27 to 7 votes, only on the condition that GDR athletes and athletes from the FRG formed a team for 1956. The President of the NOK for East Germany, Heinz Schöbel , agreed to this compromise.

At the Winter Olympics in February 1956 in Cortina d'Ampezzo , Italy , GDR athletes were able to take part in the games for the first time in an all-German team . However, domestic German elimination competitions decided on the composition of the Olympic squad. The ski jumper Harry Glaß surprisingly won the bronze medal at the games and was the first medal winner from the GDR.

The all-German team for the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne was put together without eliminations. With six gold medals, the sixth place in the unofficial medal table was achieved. The amateur boxer Wolfgang Behrendt won the first gold medal for the GDR . It was due to the special political situation that he received two congratulatory telegrams from German heads of state, one from Federal President Theodor Heuss and one from the President of the GDR, Wilhelm Pieck . At the riding competitions that were held in Stockholm for quarantine reasons, an all-women team with Liselott Linsenhoff , Hannelore Weygand and Annelise Küppers competed for the first time in Germany in dressage . The German show jumper Hans Günter Winkler won gold in the individual competition despite a serious injury in the first run, as Halla carried him over the course without any mistakes in the second run. Since the results of the individual jumping were also counted as team scores, the unexpected success of Winkler and Halla also meant gold for the German team in the lead.

After 1959, the GDR by adding socialist symbols to black-red-gold one 's own national flag was introduced, it came to a dispute over which flag behind the athletes at the Olympic Games of 1960 should invade. After a long struggle, they agreed on black, red and gold with white Olympic rings. In 1960 there were also all-German eliminations for the Summer Olympics for the first time. While in Germany east and west the federation traditionally sets up the teams (but no one could agree on a selector), the American system of binding Olympic qualifying competitions was proposed and implemented by Brundage, whereby the team should provide the boss de mission , who is the majority of the Had active members on the team. At the summer games in Rome , Armin Hary became the first German sprinter to win gold over 100 meters. Since the US relay was disqualified because of two mistakes, the German 4 x 100 meter relay with Armin Hary, Bernd Cullmann , Walter Mahlendorf and Martin Lauer also won . The German rowers won three gold medals, including the prestigious Germany eight . The mixed one-kayak relay consisting of Paul Lange , Friedhelm Wentzke (both FRG), Günter Perleberg and Dieter Krause (both GDR) also won gold.

The officials on both sides tried to compromise, but the IOC often had to decide on contentious issues. Due to the influential IOC member Karl Ritter von Halt , who was friends with the IOC President Brundage, the German position usually had more weight. In 1961, Willi Daume took over the management of the NOK for Germany from Karl Ritter von Halt, which meant that close contact with the IOC leadership was lost. Thus the admission of the GDR as a full IOC member came closer. With the construction of the Berlin Wall , the differences between East and West intensified. The members of the German Sports Federation were forbidden to travel to the GDR and to invite athletes from there to the Federal Republic. This made the participation of an all-German team in the Olympic Games in 1964 so questionable that the Swiss IOC member Albert Mayer got involved as an intermediary. In December 1962, negotiations between the two German NOKs took place on Mayer's proposal not to hold elimination matches and to compete as two separate teams with the same flag and anthem. With this solution, the all-German team was saved one last time. However, this decision was made in the absence of IOC President Brundage, who then set up a new negotiation of the issue. The result of this negotiation on March 8, 1963 revised the previous decision and again established an all-German team.

At the 1964 Winter Games in Innsbruck , figure skaters Marika Kilius and Hans-Jürgen Bäumler were the focus of German interest. They had defeated the Soviet pair Lyudmila Belousova / Oleg Protopopov eleven times in the run-up to the Olympic Games , but were only second behind them in Innsbruck. Manfred Schnelldorfer won gold in the men's figure skating . The promotion of sport in the GDR that had begun allowed more starting places, so that the GDR athletes in Tokyo made up the majority of the all-German team and the GDR's NOK was allowed to provide the “Chef de Mission”. This function was taken over by the later NOK President Manfred Ewald . Willi Holdorf won the first German gold medal in the decathlon . In addition, Karin Balzer from East Berlin won gold over the 80 meter hurdles and thus won the first gold medal in athletics for the GDR. In addition, the sailor Willi Kuhweide won in the Finn dinghy.

An independent GDR team was approved at the 63rd IOC meeting in Madrid. However, the fact that West Berlin athletes should belong to the West German team offered potential for conflict. As a result, two separate German teams competed at the Olympic Games in 1968 , but both still had the flag with the Olympic rings and the ode to joy as their anthem in common. The GDR and FRG only presented themselves completely independently from 1972.

Back swimmer Roland Matthes won two gold medals in Mexico City . In addition, Margitta Gummel won the shot put and boxer Manfred Wolke for the GDR, which clearly dominated the German-German Olympic comparison with a total of nine gold medals and fifth place in the medal table. The FRG came in ninth place with five gold medals. With the Olympic champion Josef Neckermann in the dressage team, the team of the Federal German NOK provided the oldest winner of these Olympic Games at 56 years of age. In addition, the rowing eight and Ingrid Becker also won gold in the pentathlon.

Olympic Summer Games in Munich

During the 1965 IOC session in Madrid, at which the GDR-NOK was accepted as a full member, the President of the West German NOK for Germany, Willi Daume, had the idea of ​​bringing the 1972 Summer Olympics to Germany. Daume spoke to the then Berlin Mayor Willy Brandt and asked him to give up Berlin because the IOC would not have awarded the games to the divided city. Brandt supported Daumes' proposal to send Munich into the race, and Munich mayor Hans-Jochen Vogel also agreed. In April 1966, the 1972 Summer Olympics were held in the Bavarian capital.

As host, Germany wanted to differentiate itself from the Olympic Games under the National Socialists. Therefore the working formula was 36 + 36 not equal to 72. The Olympic Park and other sports facilities (such as the Augsburger Eiskanal ) were rebuilt for the 1972 Summer Games and retained their world-class level afterwards.

The Munich Games were the first summer games in which the teams of the GDR and the FRG participated completely independently of each other. The GDR reached the third position in the medal table with 20 gold medals, ahead of the FRG with 13 gold medals. Athletics was dominated by German women. The only 16 year old Ulrike Meyfarth won gold in the high jump with a world record height of 1.92 meters. Heide Rosendahl won with 6.78 meters in the long jump and together with Annegret Richter , Ingrid Mickler-Becker and Christiane Krause also in the 4 x 100 meter relay. The relay won the prestige duel against the women of the GDR. Renate Stecher from Jena won over 100 and 200 meters with a world record. German women won all running competitions up to 1500 meters. Ruth Fuchs, a German, also won the gold medal in the javelin throw . The men, on the other hand, were not so successful. In the 50-kilometer walk, the German Army Sergeant Bernd Kannenberg won , over 20 kilometers the Thuringian Peter Frenkel won . Klaus Wolfermann won the javelin throw with a throw only two centimeters longer than the Soviet favorite Jānis Lūsis . In the pole vault, Wolfgang Nordwig from Jena won gold.

The hockey gentlemen of the FRG could win gold with the final victory against Pakistan. In gymnastics, which was dominated by Olga Korbut , Karin Büttner-Janz won the gold medals on the horse jump and on the uneven bars. In addition, the four in rowing and the track cycling four, who prevailed in the final against the GDR team, won. Only in the jump-off did Konrad Wirnhier win the skeet shooting. In the boxer middleweight division, Dieter Kottysch was the best. The German riders were also able to contribute to the rain of medals: Liselott Linsenhoff won the individual dressage competition with her horse Piaff and Fritz Ligges , Gerd Wiltfang , Hartwig Steenken and Hans Günter Winkler won the team competition for the Nations Prize, the last competition of the Games.

Coexistence of the FRG and GDR at the Olympic Games

At the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , the GDR took second place in the medal table with 40 gold, 25 silver and 25 bronze medals, behind the Soviet Union and ahead of the USA. The FRG remained fourth with 10 gold, 12 silver and 17 bronze medals. German athletes took part in the sprint competitions over 100 and 200 meters. Annegret Richter (FRG) won the 100 meters ahead of Renate Stecher (GDR) and Inge Helten (FRG). Bärbel Eckert (GDR) won over 200 meters in front of judges and engravers. The GDR high jumper Rosemarie Ackermann was the first woman in the world to jump the two meters and won gold. The women's swimming competitions were dominated by women athletes from the GDR: They won 11 out of 13 competitions. The 17-year-old Kornelia Ender stood out in particular , taking home four gold and one silver medals.

In the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979, US Secretary of State Cyrus Vance called for Moscow to withdraw the Summer Games during the IOC session before the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid. The President of the German Sports Confederation Willi Weyer rejected the function of sport as a “stick of politics”. However, on March 31, 1980, US President Jimmy Carter prompted the US NOK to boycott the Moscow Summer Games. Many nations joined, others left the athletes a choice. On April 24, the federal government followed the example of the USA, recalling the responsibility of athletes and sports organizations to the state and urging them to join the boycott out of consideration for those who did not participate. On May 15, there was an unscheduled meeting of the NOK for Germany in Düsseldorf, in which the boycott was decided in a secret ballot with 59 to 40 votes.

After the host Soviet Union (80 gold, 69 silver, 46 bronze), the GDR dominated the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow with 47 gold, 37 silver and 42 bronze medals in the absence of Western competition . The high jumper Gerd Wessig won gold and increased the world record to 2.36 meters. Waldemar Cierpinski won the Olympic marathon for the second time after 1976. The GDR swimmers won 26 out of 35 possible medals and, with Caren Metschuck (3 gold, 1 silver), they were the most successful athlete of the games. Also Rica Reinisch obtained three gold medals.

On May 8, 1984, the NOC of the USSR decided to boycott the 1984 Summer Olympics as revenge. The fact that support from the Eastern bloc was expected from the Soviet Union particularly affected the GDR, which wanted to triumph over the USA in the land of the class enemy . At a meeting of socialist sports organizations there was even a fight between the GDR sports director Manfred Ewald and the sports minister of the Soviet Union Sergej Pavlov . As a result, the GDR leadership implemented the boycott, while Romania participated as the only Eastern Bloc country. In Los Angeles , Ulrike Meyfarth won her second Olympic gold medal in the high jump after 1972, Dietmar Mögenburg won the men's high jump. The swimmer Michael Groß won two gold and two silver medals.

Two German teams took part in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul for the last time. The German riders secured team gold in the military, jumping and dressage. In addition, Nicole Uphoff also won the individual dressage. Michael Groß won gold again after 1984. After winning the four Grand Slam titles, Steffi Graf secured the Golden Slam by winning the Olympic tennis tournament . For the GDR, among others, Henry Maske , Jochen Schümann and Birgit Fischer won gold medals. Christian Schenk won the supreme discipline of track and field athletes, Ulf Timmermann won the shot put and Jürgen Schult won the discus thrower . Most successful, however, was the swimmer Kristin Otto , who won six times out of six starts.

The Olympic Games after reunification (since 1992)

• 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville
• 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona
• 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer
• 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta
• 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano
• 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney
• 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City
• 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens
• 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin
• 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing
• 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver
• Summer Olympics 2012 in London
• 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi
• 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro
• Winter Olympics 2018 in Pyeongchang

Association of the Olympic Movement in Germany

After the German reunification there were problems in merging the two sport-political systems. The GDR's sports system could no longer be financed and tens of thousands of employees from sports organizations and laboratories feared being fired. The functionaries of the former GDR and those of the old Federal Republic of Germany were skeptical of each other. The case of Katrin Krabbe , who grew up in the GDR state doping system , caused a stir internationally . She won two gold medals at the World Athletics Championships in Tokyo in 1991 , but did not take part in the 1992 Olympics. Many German sports officials, including the NOK President Willi Daume, wanted to keep quiet about the GDR doping problem and leave the burdened supervisors in their traditional positions. In contrast, various commissions, with the participation of Manfred Freiherr von Richthofen , who later became President of the German Sports Confederation , worked to clarify the past of doping and stasis . In view of the expected successes, however, the critical voices were hardly heard. Supervisors from the GDR continued to be employed for the time being.

Participation of a united Germany

After 56 years, the team from a single German state competed at the 1992 Winter Olympics for the first time. The premiere was crowned with third place in the medal ranking. The German NOK had applied with Berchtesgaden to host the Games, but had already failed in the first ballot when it was awarded in Lausanne in 1986.

In Barcelona, ​​Germany came third behind the CIS and the USA in the medal table with 33 gold, 21 silver and 26 bronze medals. Franziska van Almsick , who was only 14 years old, became the German star of the Games , although she only won two silver and two bronze medals. The German athletes won in four disciplines: Dieter Baumann won the 5000 meters, Silke Renk the javelin, Heike Henkel the high jump and Heike Drechsler the long jump. Germany dominated especially the boat sports with four gold medals for the rowers and seven for the canoeists. Boris Becker and Michael Stich won the men's tennis doubles .

After the Barcelona Summer Games, which were successful for Germany, Berlin aimed to host the 2000 Summer Olympic Games . The costly Olympic project did not find much support in view of the problems in the merging of East and West. In addition, there was mismanagement by the Berlin application company, which acted generally clumsily. In the 1993 vote in Monte-Carlo , Berlin had no chance; the 2000 Summer Games were awarded to Sydney .

Before the Olympic Games in 1996, the problems in East German sport became more and more apparent. The sports facilities based in East Germany suffered from massive downsizing and the athletes could not rely on the state for career planning as in the GDR. The financial outlay to send the athletes to the Olympic Games was criticized in view of the ailing sports infrastructure. The federal government stuck to the promotion of top-class sport.

At the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Germany defended its third place in the medal table. Eight of the 20 gold medals were won by German boats: five of them were won by canoeists, two by rowers and one by sailor Jochen Schümann . The German riders dominated their competitions. Ulrich Kirchhoff won individual and team show jumping, Isabell Werth won team and individual gold in dressage. In athletics, Lars Riedel and Ilke Wyludda won the discus throw and Astrid Kumbernuss won the shot put. The decathlete Frank Busemann only won silver, but became one of the crowd's favorites. Franziska van Almsick , however, could not meet the high expectations. On her parade route, the 200 meters freestyle , she only achieved second place. The highest audience rating in Germany, however, was achieved by Udo Quellmalz's victory over Yukimasa Nakamura in judo with 8.13 million viewers.

In the period up to the Summer Olympics in 2000, the GDR past of sport was also dealt with in court. Many trainers, officials and medical professionals from East Germany felt the consequences of the doping system. They were charged with bodily harm by using anabolic steroids.

Germany at the Olympics in the new millennium

Germany slipped to fifth place in the medal table at the Summer Olympics in Sydney, behind China and hosts Australia . Canoeist Birgit Fischer won her gold medals number six and seven and thus tops the list of the most successful German Olympic athletes . The track cyclist Robert Bartko won the individual and team pursuit. Jan Ullrich won gold in the road race and took silver in the time trial. The most surprising German winner was the athlete Nils Schumann over the 800 meters. Eight years after her victory in the long jump, Heike Drechsler won gold again in this discipline. Like the entire German swimming team, Franziska van Almsick disappointed . In the 200 meter freestyle she missed the finals.

Another German application to host the 2012 Summer Games, at which Leipzig was agreed, failed in the IOC preselection. Likewise, the bobsled run in Königssee as part of the Salzburg application for the 2014 Winter Games did not receive Olympic honors. Munich's application for the 2018 Winter Olympics also failed when the South Korean city of Pyeongchang was awarded the contract in July 2011 . The Presidium of the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB) submitted a catalog of questions for the 2024 or 2028 Olympic applications for both Berlin and Hamburg. The binding application should have been announced to the IOC in autumn 2015 .

German sports aid

The German Sports Aid Foundation has been promoting athletes in the Federal Republic of Germany since 1967 . The chairmanship of the foundation was taken over by Josef Neckermann , who had been an Olympian himself , until the beginning of 1989 . Particularly in sports that are not as highly publicized as canoeing and others that only come into the public eye at the Olympic Games, the sponsorship of sport aid secures the athletes financially. In addition, the German Sports Aid awards prizes for medals won.

German participants in the Olympic Games

Summer games

year	NOK	Athletes			sports																																					Medals
		Ges.																																												rank
1896		21st	21st	0	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	5	-	-	5	-	-	1	2	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	11	-	-	-	6th	5	2	13	3
1900		78	78	0	-	-	-	-	-	-	2	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	6th	-	-	3	-	-	-	21st	16	-	6th	6th	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	14th	-	7th	-	4th	2	2	8th	7th
1904		22nd	22nd	0	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	11	-	-	-	-	-	3	-	-	-	4th	-	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	9	-	-	3	4th	5	7th	16	2
1908		84	82	2	-	-	-	-	-	3	10	-	-	-	-	11	-	-	21st	-	-	9	-	-	1	3	-	1	5	-	-	-	-	5	-	-	-	11	-	-	5	3	5	5	13	5
1912		185	180	5	-	-	-	-	-	-	16	22nd	-	-	-	-	-	-	24	1	-	11	13	-	14th	26th	-	11	17th	-	-	-	-	11	-	-	-	18th	-	-	4th	5	13	7th	25th	6th
1920		not participated
1924		not participated
1928		230	190	40	-	-	-	-	8th	-	13	22nd	10	-	-	22nd	-	-	63	3	-	10	8th	-	6th	23	-	-	19th	6th	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	8th	9	10	7th	14th	31	2
1932		83	76	7th	-	-	-	-	8th	-	2	-	4th	-	-	-	-	-	27	3	-	4th	-	-	5	16	-	1	2	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	8th	2	3	12	5	20th	9
1936		348	306	42	-	10	-	-	8th	-	16	16	10	-	22nd	22nd	-	14th	77	3	4th	12	9	-	14th	26th	-	9	24	14th	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	16	-	11	11	33	26th	30th	89	1
1948		not participated
1952		205	173	32	-	-	-	-	10	-	9	14th	5	-	-	15th	-	10	39	3	-	5	8th	-	8th	21st	-	6th	9	14th	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	16	-	9	4th	-	7th	17th	24	28
1952		36	31	5	-	-	-	-	3	-	5	-	-	-	-	-	-	3	6th	-	-	-	-	-	3	7th	-	2	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	6th	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
1956		172	148	24	-	-	-	-	8th	-	1	15th	2	-	-	11	-	10	43	-	-	10	9	-	5	12	-	2	18th	9	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	6th	-	11	-	6th	13	7th	26th	7th
1960		294	239	55	-	-	-	-	10	-	19th	-	7th	-	-	14th	-	10	90	3	-	14th	9	-	15th	25th	-	10	26th	12	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	-	11	7th	12	19th	11	42	4th
1964		337	275	62	-	-	-	-	10	-	19th	19th	6th	-	-	12	4th	12	97	3	-	13	10	-	14th	26th	-	10	38	12	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	-	11	9	10	22nd	18th	50	4th
1968		275	232	43	-	-	-	-	8th	-	20th	-	5	-	-	18th	-	13	67	3	-	13	11	-	9	26th	-	12	27	11	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	-	11	8th	5	11	10	26th	8th
1968		228	188	40	-	-	-	-	8th	-	4th	-	3	-	-	17th	-	12	47	3	-	10	7th	-	11	26th	-	9	24	8th	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	12	11	5	9	9	7th	25th	5
1972		425	341	84	-	12	-	4th	9	-	20th	19th	7th	-	16	18th	5	28	87	3	-	17th	11	-	17th	26th	-	14th	44	13	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	24	11	9	13	11	16	40	4th
1972		299	233	66	-	-	-	-	8th	-	5	19th	8th	-	16	-	5	26th	62	-	-	11	7th	-	17th	26th	-	9	37	11	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	12	-	8th	20th	23	23	66	3
1976		290	257	33	-	-	-	3	6th	-	16	-	6th	-	14th	16	4th	13	54	3	-	12	11	-	15th	44	-	12	22nd	12	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	-	11	4th	10	12	17th	39	4th
1976		267	154	113	-	-	-	-	8th	-	1	17th	8th	-	14th	-	3	11	58	-	-	11	-	-	12	54	-	11	23	6th	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	12	-	7th	40	25th	25th	90	3
1980		not participated
1980		347	223	124	-	-	-	-	10	-	15th	17th	9	-	28	-	6th	13	82	-	-	13	-	-	9	55	-	13	30th	13	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	12	-	9	47	37	42	126	2
1984		390	267	123	-	12	-	5	8th	-	20th	15th	6th	-	28	32	8th	15th	58	3	-	20th	11	2	14th	36	-	18th	24	13	-	3	-	-	-	-	-	12	11	12	4th	17th	19th	23	59	3
1984		not participated
1988		347	244	103	-	-	-	6th	6th	-	20th	18th	7th	-	-	31	7th	14th	48	3	-	15th	13	2	17th	38	-	18th	29	15th	-	3	-	5	6th	-	-	8th	-	13	6th	11	14th	15th	40	5
1988		261	159	102	-	-	-	-	11	-	7th	-	5	-	15th	-	4th	15th	58	-	-	17th	-	-	8th	44	-	15th	26th	9	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	12	12	-	4th	37	35	30th	102	2
1992		463	300	163	4th	12	-	6th	12	-	20th	-	10	-	32	32	13	29	79	3	-	17th	12	1	17th	53	-	18th	34	15th	-	2	-	6th	5	-	-	12	12	13	7th	33	21st	28	82	3
1996		465	278	187	6th	-	4th	3	8th	-	15th	16	10	-	30th	32	13	27	85	-	-	18th	16	8th	12	48	-	22nd	28	15th	-	-	-	3	7th	-	-	9	12	13	7th	20th	18th	27	65	3
2000		422	241	181	6th	-	8th	4th	8th	-	18th	17th	5	-	15th	32	11	25th	64	2	-	25th	14th	8th	10	31	-	20th	34	17th	-	-	3	5	8th	4th	2	6th	12	-	8th	13	17th	26th	56	5
2004		453	254	199	6th	-	8th	4th	4th	-	11	18th	5	-	15th	32	12	27	71	2	-	23	13	1	9	49	-	19th	35	17th	-	-	-	3	8th	6th	2	8th	12	13	11	13	16	20th	49	6th
2008		434	241	193	5	12	8th	2	4th	-	9	18th	5	-	29	33	11	22nd	55	4th	-	20th	12	-	7th	48	-	18th	25th	12	-	-	4th	2	6th	6th	2	12	12	13	9	16	11	14th	41	5
2012		392	218	174	6th	-	8th	2	4th	-	14th	-	5	-	-	32	11	21st	73	4th	-	22nd	13	7th	4th	48	-	17th	29	12	-	-	2	7th	6th	6th	2	10	12	-	8th	11	19th	14th	44	6th
2016		418	224	194	7th	-	6th	2	6th	-	4th	38	5	4th	16	33	13	18th	84	4th	-	29	12	6th	7th	35	-	15th	29	12	-	-	3	8th	6th	2	1	10	-	-	8th	17th	10	15th	42	5
total																																										275	315	350	940	3

Winter games

year	NOK	Athletes			sports															Medals
		Ges.																						rank
1924		not participated
1928		46	41	5	-	10	-	11	8th	3	-	5	-	-	-	-	5	4th	-	-	-	1	1	8th
1932		20th	20th	0	-	9	-	10	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	2	2	9
1936		55	48	7th	-	10	-	12	6th	2	-	4th	-	-	-	8th	10	4th	-	3	3	-	6th	2
1948		not participated
1952		53	41	12	-	5	-	15th	8th	1	-	2	-	-	-	11	9	4th	-	3	2	2	7th	4th
1956		63	52	11	-	10	-	17th	4th	2	-	4th	-	-	-	11	11	4th	-	1	-	1	2	9
1960		74	56	18th	4th	-	-	16	11	12	-	4th	-	-	-	10	14th	4th	-	4th	3	1	8th	2
1964		119	96	23	4th	9	-	17th	12	13	-	4th	9	-	-	10	13	5	-	3	3	3	9	6th
1968		87	57	20th	4th	8th	-	18th	11	8th	-	4th	8th	-	-	13	10	4th	-	2	2	3	7th	8th
1968		57	45	12	5	-	-	18th	8th	1	-	3	8th	-	-	1	9	4th	-	1	2	2	5	10
1972		79	63	16	2	8th	-	20th	5	7th	-	4th	11	-	-	11	9	3	-	3	1	1	5	6th
1972		42	29	13	5	-	-	-	7th	2	-	4th	9	-	-	-	10	5	-	4th	3	7th	14th	2
1976		71	56	15th	6th	8th	-	18th	4th	3	-	2	8th	-	-	13	7th	2	-	2	5	3	10	5
1976		59	40	19th	5	8th	-	-	10	9	-	4th	9	-	-	-	10	4th	-	7th	5	7th	19th	2
1980		80	61	19th	6th	10	-	20th	7th	4th	-	4th	7th	-	-	13	8th	3	-	-	2	3	5	12
1980		53	36	17th	4th	8th	-	-	7th	9	-	4th	9	-	-	-	6th	6th	-	9	7th	7th	23	2
1984		84	69	15th	4th	10	-	20th	9	7th	-	4th	8th	-	-	12	6th	4th	-	2	1	1	4th	8th
1984		56	40	16	4th	8th	-	-	8th	10	-	3	10	-	-	-	8th	5	-	9	9	6th	24	1
1988		90	71	19th	5	8th	-	23	8th	5	-	4th	7th	-	-	17th	9	5	-	2	4th	2	8th	8th
1988		53	36	17th	7th	10	-	-	5	10	-	3	10	-	-	-	6th	2	-	9	10	6th	25th	2
1992		111	75	36	9	12	-	23	6th	14th	4th	4th	10	-	-	14th	10	5	-	10	10	6th	26th	1
1994		112	79	33	9	12	-	23	10	15th	5	4th	10	-	-	14th	5	5	-	9	7th	8th	24	3
1998		125	78	47	11	10	10	23	6th	14th	3	5	10	5	-	7th	10	4th	8th	12	9	8th	29	1
2002		161	89	72	12	15th	10	45	4th	13	-	6th	10	7th	4th	9	11	6th	9	12	16	8th	36	2
2006		162	96	66	12	15th	5	45	5	13	2	6th	10	10	4th	7th	11	5	11	11	12	6th	29	1
2010		153	95	58	12	18th	10	23	8th	13	5	5	10	6th	6th	10	14th	5	8th	10	13	7th	30th	2
2014		153	76	77	12	18th	5	21st	10	14th	10	5	10	2	5	7th	17th	9	10	8th	6th	5	19th	6th
2018		152	94	58	12	20th	-	25th	8th	9	8th	5	10	2	6th	11	12	9	14th	14th	10	7th	31	2
total																				150	145	113	408	1

• List of Olympic medalists from Germany

Medals won by Germany at the Summer Olympics between 1896 and 2012:
- Between 1956 and 1964, medals won by all German teams,
- Between 1968 and 1988, medals won by the GDR and the FRG.

Medals won by Germany at the Olympic Winter Games between 1928 and 2014:
- Between 1956 and 1964, medals won by all German teams,
- Between 1968 and 1988, medals won by the GDR and the FRG.

Summer youth games

year	Athletes			sports																											Medals
	Ges.																																		rank
2010	70	33	37	1	4th	1	-	3	3	1	-	-	-	2	3	16	2	-	1	2	3	8th	2	-	4th	3	2	2	5	2	4th	9	9	22nd	13
2014	85	39	46	2	8th	4th	2	1	2	1	2	18th	-	2	3	13	1	-	1	3	1	8th	-	-	4th	-	2	2	2	2	2	8th	15th	25th	26th
2018	74	30th	44	2	4th	2	2	-	2	-	2	-	1	1	3	20th	1	4th	1	3	4th	8th	3	1	1	-	2	2	3	2	3	4th	2	9	20th
total																															9	21st	26th	56	19th

Winter youth games

year	Athletes			sports																Medals
	Ges.																							rank
2012	57	24	33	4th	2	4th	17th	1	4th	3	1	5	1	3	4th	-	4th	3	2	8th	7th	2	17th	1
2016	43	23	20th	4th	3	-	2	3	4th	2	1	5	2	3	4th	-	4th	3	3	7th	7th	8th	22nd	4th
2020	92	40	52	8th	3	4th	21st	2	4th	4th	4th	8th	2	5	5	4th	6th	4th	9	5	7th	6th	18th	4th
sports																				20th	21st	16	47	2

See also

• German Olympic Sports Confederation
• National Olympic Committee for Germany
• National Olympic Committee of the GDR
• List of the flag bearers of the German teams at the Olympic Games

literature

• The Olympia Book: Athens 1896–2004 Athens. Delius Klasing Verlag, Bielefeld 2003, ISBN 3-7688-1545-5 .
• Manfred Lämmer (Ed. On behalf of the National Olympic Committee for Germany.): Germany in the Olympic movement. An interim balance. Frankfurt am Main 1999, ISBN 3-87064-110-X .
• Klaus Huhn : The GDR at the Olympics: 1956–1988 . Spotless, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-933544-43-2 .
• Arnd Krüger : Neo-Olympism between nationalism and internationalism. In: Horst Ueberhorst (Ed.): History of physical exercises. Volume 3/1, Bartels & Wernitz, Berlin 1980, ISBN 3-87039-036-0 , pp. 522-568.
• Arnd Krüger: Germany and the Olympic Movement (1918–1945). In: Horst Ueberhorst (Ed.): History of physical exercises. Volume 3/2, Bartels & Wernitz, Berlin 1982, ISBN 3-87039-054-9 , pp. 1026-1047.
• Arnd Krüger: Germany and the Olympic Movement (1945–1980). In: Horst Ueberhorst (Ed.): History of physical exercises. Volume 3/2, Bartels & Wernitz, Berlin 1982, ISBN 3-87039-054-9 , pp. 1048-1081.

Web links

• Germany in the Sports-Reference database (English; archived from the original )
• Germany on Olympic.org  - The Official website of the Olympic movement (English)
• http://www.dosb.de/index.php - page of the DOSB or former National Olympic Committee

Individual evidence

1. ^ Ulrich Pabst: Sport - Medium of Politics? Bartels & Wernitz, Berlin 1980, ISBN 3-87039-007-7 , p. 180.
2. ^ Ulrich Pabst: Sport - Medium of Politics? Bartels & Wernitz, Berlin 1980, ISBN 3-87039-007-7 , p. 182.
3. ^ Ulrich Pabst: Sport - Medium of Politics? Bartels & Wernitz, Berlin 1980, ISBN 3-87039-007-7 , p. 184.
4. ^ Ulrich Pabst: Sport - Medium of Politics? Bartels & Wernitz, Berlin 1980, ISBN 3-87039-007-7 , p. 190.
5. ^ Arnd Krüger : The Unfinished Symphony. A History of the Olympic Games from Coubertin to Samaranch. In: James Riordan , Arnd Krüger (Ed.): The International Politics of Sport in the 20th Century . Spon, London 1999, ISBN 0-419-21160-8 , pp. 3-27.
6. ↑ Questionnaire ( Memento of the original from January 22nd, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.