History of bridge building
The history of bridge construction began in prehistoric times with fallen trees, deliberately placed trunks, lianas, stones and wooden planks, which, as bridges with a small span, overcame short distances, and now ends with many kilometers of bridges and suspension bridges whose vibration dampers are computer-controlled . Any representation of this story must therefore inevitably be incomplete and contain a selection that could also be made differently.
Prehistory and early history
Wooden bridges
Old wooden bridges , times have never survived, but from the Mesolithic are boardwalks known where swamps were crossed. Well-known examples come from the Somerset Levels in England and Lower Saxony. In London, Bronze Age bridge remains have been preserved in the Thames near Vauxhall . Remains of an Iron Age wooden bridge were found in La Tène in Switzerland.
Cuneiform texts from the ancient Assyrian period show that there were bridges in Anatolia . So there was a bridge in Purušhattum; An Assyrian merchant here paid a toll of 15 shekels of copper per donkey. Another bridge was between Salatuar and Wahušana.
There is written evidence of a bridge near Tapikka in Hittite times . The pillars on the bank were made of stone, the bridge itself of wood.
According to tradition, the oldest Roman wooden bridge was built in the 7th century BC. BC built Pons Sublicius over the Tiber .
There were also ship bridges early on. Herodotus reports that during his campaign against the Scythians (513/512 BC) the Persian King Dareios I reached Europe with his 70,000-strong army on the ship bridge he commanded across the Bosporus . In the course of the same campaign, his army also crossed the Danube on a ship bridge. Xerxes I had the ship bridges over the Hellespont (approx. 480 BC) , two bridges consisting of over 300 ships each, built to cross the Dardanelles .
Stone bridges
Stones were first used in the form of stepping stones to cross streams and were probably soon further developed into flagstone bridges. These are simple bridges made of large stone slabs loosely laid on the banks or on stone pillars. Examples are the bridge at Lablachère in France and the Tarr Steps in Exmoor National Park in England , which may date from the Bronze Age . Such stone slab bridges ( clapper bridges ) have been built in England and Wales , but also in Spain and Portugal , since the Middle Ages . The longest flagstone bridge is the two-kilometer Anping Bridge , which was built between 1138 and 1151 in Jinjiang , Fujian Province , China and was the longest bridge in China until 1905.
The construction of stone arch bridges began with cantilever arch structures . The bridges of Arkadiko in the Peloponnese , built by the Mycenaeans around 1300 BC. Built to connect with the coast, they are the oldest preserved stone arch bridges in Greece and perhaps even in the world. They are still used today.
Roman antiquity
The real bow was used in ancient Egypt and at least once by the Greeks and the Etruscans ; but it has not yet achieved widespread use.
Arched bridges
Stone bridges with real round arches were first developed by the Romans and built in large numbers in the course of the traffic routes necessary for the military and trade across the empire. They were mostly bridges with several heavy round arches on massive, thick pillars, but occasionally with only one slender arch high above mountain rivers. Some of them have been preserved. When building bridges, the Romans often used Opus caementitium , a precursor to concrete , which made it possible to increase their load-bearing capacity. The first stone arch bridge in Rome , the Pons Aemilius , was built in 142 BC. Built. In 115 BC In Rome the wooden Milvian Bridge at the beginning of the Via Flaminia was reinforced with stone pillars. The Ponte dell'Abbadia was built in 90 BC. Built between the Etruscan cities of Vulci and Tarquinia in Latium . The 62 BC Pons Fabricius , built in BC, is the oldest surviving bridge in Rome, and the Angel's Bridge is probably the most famous.
In the French Apt , the approximately 70 m long Pont Julien spans a 3 BC. Roman bridge built in BC, the Calavon . In Vaison-la-Romaine , too, a Roman building, the Pont Romaine , spans the river Ouvèze at a height of 12 m and a span of 17.2 m .
The most famous Roman bridge is probably the Alcántara Bridge , which was built from 98 to 106 AD by Gajus Julius Lacer entirely from granite and without the use of mortar. The bridge spans the River Tagus with a length of 188 m and a width of 8 m . The maximum pillar spacing is 34 m or 36 m in the two central arches. The longest surviving Roman bridge is probably the more than 700 m long Puente Romano in Mérida , which crosses the Guadiana with 62 arches.
Segment arch bridges
The Romans soon began to shorten the semicircle of the round arch and to laterally support the segment arch . With a segmented arch bridge between rock walls consisting of only one arch , the lateral forces can be transferred comparatively easily into the bank walls; Segment arch bridges with several arches that support each other on the pillars are much more difficult to implement. One of the very first segment arch bridges is the Ponte San Lorenzo , hidden under modern buildings in Padua , which is also characterized by its unusually slender pillars, the thickness of which is only an eighth of the span. The Pont Saint-Martin in the Aosta Valley , built around the turn of the times, is also an early example of a segmented arch bridge and is one of the most spectacular Roman bridges in every respect; its thin arched rib is only 1/34 of the pillar diameter. Other Roman segment arch bridges are the Puente de Alconétar over the Tajo, which was in operation until the High Middle Ages, and the bridge near Limyra in southern Turkey , which, with an average arrow height of 5.3 to 1, remained the most flat-span stone arch bridge in the world until the late Middle Ages .
Pointed arch bridges
One of the first bridges with a pointed arch was the late Roman Karamagara Bridge (5th / 6th century) in eastern Turkey ; she went under in the Keban dam .
Aqueducts
The aqueduct bridges Pont du Gard , Tarragona and Segovia also bear witness to the high level of Roman bridge construction in terms of water supply.
Wooden bridges
The Romans also built large wooden bridges , some as yoke bridges , often with stone pillars and a wooden supporting structure. Examples from Germany are the Rhine bridges near Mainz , Cologne and Xanten as well as the river crossings in Koblenz and the preserved Roman bridge in Trier . One of the most famous bridges of this era is the Caesar's Rhine Bridge near Neuwied, built by military pioneers in just ten days .
The Trajan's Bridge , which led over the lower Danube on stone pillars with wooden segmental arches , was the longest bridge in the world for a thousand years, both in terms of its total length and its arch spans.
List of Roman bridges
The list of Roman bridges contains the most comprehensive and illustrated list of ancient bridges from the Roman Empire, which stretched across Europe to North Africa and the Near East. The expansion of this empire may be illustrated by the Ponte Romana in Chaves (Portugal) , the bridge over the Sebcha Halk el Menzel near Hergla in Tunisia and the bridge in Mopsuestia over the Pyramos , today's Ceyhan not far from Adana in Turkey.
middle Ages
Stone arch bridges
With the fall of the Roman Empire , there was no longer any need for traffic routes. Numerous ancient bridges, which were damaged by floods, ice and running loads, fell into disrepair, with a few exceptions in the Moorish areas such as the Roman bridge in Córdoba , which spans the Guadalquivir with 16 arches , and the Puente Romano over the Guadiana in Mérida . In the early Middle Ages, people were content with wooden bridges, but these were often destroyed by floods. Among the few newly built stone bridges were the Puente la Reina , built in the 11th century over the Arga on the Way of St. James , the old Limay bridge over an arm of the Seine in Mantes-la-Jolie , Yvelines department and the Drusus bridge over the Nahe near Bingen am Rhine .
Stone arch bridges were not built again until the 12th century. Large streams of pilgrims, whose crowds made it necessary to build bridges, passed through Europe, partly on the way to the Holy Land, partly on the way to Santiago de Compostela and other places where relics from the Holy Land were venerated. The 16-arch stone bridge in Regensburg (336 m long) was the starting point of the Second Crusade on the way to Jerusalem (1147).
Also in the 12th century, the Pont Vell was built in Besalú on the Spanish Pyrenees , an idiosyncratic angled arch bridge over the Río Fluvià , which is still strongly reminiscent of Roman models. The first Prague stone bridge, the Judith Bridge ( Juditin most ), the forerunner of the Charles Bridge, was built between 1158 and around 1170 . In the years 1176-1209 the London Bridge was renewed with 19 stone pointed arches and a drawbridge as a passage. Around the same time, the Dresden Bridge was the first stone bridge to be built over the Elbe , and in 1223 the Werra Bridge at Creuzburg .
In the 13th century, the wooden bridge over the Rhone near Avignon was replaced by the famous Pont St. Bénézet , a stone arch bridge with 21 arches, of which only four have survived since a flood in 1660. This bridge has elliptical arches for the first time, which were not used again until much later. In 1230, the Bishop of Lorenzo near Orense had the Ponte Vella , an arched bridge over the Río Miño, built.
Bridge building increased across Europe. The bridges were often provided with a chapel and one or two bridge towers to control passers-by and for defense. The massive pillars were often not built at exactly the same intervals, but where the conditions were most favorable. The bridges therefore have stone arches with different, not too large spans (mostly 10–16 m), which do not necessarily stand in a straight line. By stringing together small arches, the bridges were able to cross the river without steep gradients. At the same time, the risks of long arches and the costs of the large falsework required were avoided. However, the cross-section of the river was significantly narrowed by the piers, which leads to increased flow speeds under the bridges. So although the London Bridge could be crossed without any problems, it was considered dangerous to pass under it on a boat. A scouring to prevent the pillars, they were often founded on foundation boards in the river bottom, towered its scope far beyond the pillars feet.
Examples include the Old Bridge in Frankfurt am Main , the Old Lahn Bridge in Wetzlar , the Tauber Bridge in Rothenburg ob der Tauber , an unusual double bridge , some bridges in France and the Eurymedon Bridge, which was also built in the 13th century by Seljuks not far from Aspendos on Roman remains , which leads with a distinctive kink over the Köprüçay .
In Central Europe, almost all bridges were destroyed by the Magdalen flood in July 1342.
The longest medieval stone arch bridges include the Pont Saint-Esprit , built from 1265 to 1309 , the oldest, almost 900 m long bridge over the Rhone in the town of the same name in southern France, and the 17 arches Charles Bridge in Prague over the Vltava with a length of almost 900 m 516 m and a width of 9.5 m, which was commissioned in 1357 under Emperor Charles IV . This bridge got its unmistakable appearance through its bridge towers and statues. The Ponte Vecchio di Dolceacqua over the Nervia , the Pont Valentré in Cahors and the Puente de San Martín in Toledo are also mentioned because of their special features .
Other bridges are included in the list of medieval stone bridges in Germany and in the list of medieval bridges in France .
Spans
While the long bridges over wide rivers mostly consisted of many arches with not very large spans, smaller, but occasionally raging rivers were crossed with just one central arch where possible, the abutments of which were in the water at most during floods. Considerable spans were achieved:
| bridge | place | Construction year | span |
|---|---|---|---|
| Devil's bridge | Martorell | 1283 | 37.30 m |
| Ponte della Maddalena | Borgo a Mozzano | around 1300 | 37.80 m |
| Puente des San Martin | Toledo | late 14th century | 40.00 m |
| Pont de Nyons | Nyons | 1409 | 40.53 m |
| Pont du Diable | at Céret | 1341 | 45.45 m |
| Ponte Scaligero | Verona | 1356 | 48.70 m |
| Pont Grand | Tournon-sur-Rhône | 1379-1583 | 49.20 m |
| Pont de Vieille-Brioude | Vieille-Brioude | 1479 | 54.50 m |
| Trezzo Bridge | Trezzo sull'Adda | 1377 | 72.00 m |
At the Devil's Bridge in Martorell the pointed arch is striking, with which material could be saved. The semicircular arch of the Devil's Bridge in Céret has the largest clear width of a round arch from the Middle Ages, while the Pont Grand and the Trezzo Bridge already have segmental arches. The Ponte Scaligero, which crosses the Adige with three wide-span segment arches, occupies a remarkable special position . From 1416 until it collapsed in 1822, the Pont de Vieille-Brioude was the bridge with the largest span. The largest single arch bridge, however, was the Trezzo Bridge with a clear width of around 72 m. However, it was brought down again during a siege in 1416. However, their range was only exceeded in the industrial age.
Pointed arch and segment arch bridges
Bridge construction was based solely on the experience of the builders and their occasional courage to cautious innovations. There was no abstract knowledge of static-constructive relationships. This is why pointed arches were used only occasionally. The segment arch bridges, which were already known to the Romans, were only rarely built. With stone bridges, they allow the larger spans, but also have a larger sideshift, which in longer bridges must be absorbed by the next arch. The 22 arches of the Pont St. Bénézet in Avignon already had a slightly segmental character - the ratio of clear width to height corresponds to a value of 2.5 to 1 - but this was confirmed by the three-arched Florentine Ponte Vecchio (1345) with one Value of 5.3 to 1 far exceeded. The Ponte Vecchio, the Ponte Scaligero and the Trezzo Bridge with a cant of 3.4: 1 are the most important segment arch bridges of the Middle Ages; it was not until the 16th century that this arch shape was used more frequently.
Built bridges
The original Krämerbrücke in Erfurt over the Gera, built in 1325, as well as the Alte Nahebrücke in Bad Kreuznach and the Innere Brücke in Esslingen am Neckar are among the bridges that still exist and are "overbuilt" with houses and shops.
This concept was first realized in Paris at the Grand Pont in the 12th century (1141), today's Pont au Change . From the 12th century until the French Revolution, Paris had 6 bridges built over with houses. The last bridge to be built, the Pont Saint-Michel , was built until 1807.
The Rialto Bridge over the Grand Canal with two rows of shops, the High Bridge in Lincoln (Lincolnshire) and the Pulteney Bridge in Bath , completed in 1773, are also examples of built-up bridges in Venice between 1588 and 1592 instead of a wooden bridge .
Covered wooden bridges
After the bridge toll had been recognized as a source of income and the importance of traffic routes for trade in markets, princes, bishops and abbots had wooden bridges built on roads, some of which were constructed as covered bridges . The wooden bridge over the Rhine in Bad Säckingen , the Ponts Couverts over the Ill in Strasbourg and in 1365 built Chapel Bridge and Mill Bridge over the river Reuss in Luzern are examples from this period.
Chain bridge
To cross the Gotthard Pass , the Schöllenen Gorge with its almost vertical rock faces had to be passed. For this purpose, the Twärren Bridge was built around 1220 , a wooden footbridge that was suspended from the rock with forged chains and can therefore be regarded as a forerunner of the chain bridge that was only introduced in Europe centuries later . On this dizzying footbridge you came to the then still wooden Devil's Bridge over the Reuss and finally to the upper exit of the gorge.
From the Renaissance to the Industrial Age
First theoretical considerations
In the Renaissance one began with abstract descriptions of bridges and theoretical considerations for the first time. Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) wrote De Re Aedificatoria in ten volumes, a description primarily of Roman architecture. Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) published I Quattro libri dell'architettura with his own designs, including for the first time curved wooden frameworks for church roofs and bridges. Fausto Veranzio (1551–1617) dealt with various types of bridges in the Machinae Novae and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) made his first reflections on the theory of elasticity in the Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche .
practice
Even if Alberti and Palladio were architects themselves and influenced the architectural style development, the largely academic considerations were still far removed from applicable rules and in practice had no influence on bridge construction. The construction of a bridge was still based on the experience and courage of the builder, but not on theoretical considerations or even calculations.
The bridge construction therefore initially showed hardly any innovations. In addition to the usual but not very durable wooden bridges, stone arches without particularly large spans were still used, but with the tendency to flatten the complete circular arc into a segmental arch. The bridges were made wider and more robust, so that they are often still used today, such as the Neckar Bridge in Lauffen .
A milestone, however, is the elegant Renaissance bridge Ponte Santa Trinita in Florence, built between 1567 and 1571 , in which basket arches were used for the first time , giving the bridge a previously unattained flat profile (ratio of span to arch height of 7: 1). The Rialto Bridge , built between 1588 and 1591 , which spans the Grand Canal in Venice with a long arch and supports two rows of shops, also caused a sensation, among other things because the segment arch is supported by two abutments, which are supported on post gratings with 6000 each rammed wooden stakes are established. The Nuremberg council builder Wolf Jacob Stromer was probably inspired by this bridge to build the very flat meat bridge spanning 27 meters , which when completed in 1598 had the largest span of a stone arch bridge in Germany. It is also based on driven piles, including 400 angled piles, a very rare construction method at the time. Just two years later, the construction of the Ponte dei Sospiri (Bridge of Sighs) at the Doge's Palace began in Venice . Although it only has a span of eight meters, it became famous soon after its completion in 1602/1603 with its completely closed marble bridge, which is supported by a basket arch and covered by a segment arch.
In 1607 the Pont Neuf was completed in Paris , a new arch bridge over the Seine , the cornerstone of which had been laid by King Henri III in 1578 , but whose construction was interrupted for ten years by the Huguenot Wars . It is still completely structured according to the Roman model and today it is the oldest bridge in Paris. By order of King Henri IV , it was the first bridge to be completed without building houses and shops - much to the displeasure of local merchants. The Pont Henri IV in Châtellerault , which was completed at around the same time, and the Pont Neuf in Toulouse , which was built at the same time but was completed later, also had to remain without building.
From the increasing number of larger and smaller bridges, only a few can be named, such as B. the new construction of the Old Main Bridge in Würzburg and the Augustus Bridge in Dresden, the Berwick Bridge on the border between Scotland and England , the Pont Royal in Paris, or the Ponte dei swinging in two elegant arches over the Verzasca Salti in Lavertezzo in Ticino .
Developed during the 18th century Hans Ulrich and Johannes Grubenmann some innovations in the construction of covered bridges of wood . In an empirical way, arch structures were combined with trusses and hanging trusses, so that bridges with spans of up to sixty meters were achieved. This technique was then also used by the Grubenmann brothers in the construction of wide-span church roofs. The most famous example of their bridge structures is the Schaffhausen Rhine Bridge , which was 120 m long and had only one intermediate pillar. The Neckar Bridge Plochingen , built by Johann Christian Adam Etzel (1743–1801; uncle of Gottlieb Christian Eberhard von Etzel ) in 1778 with a cantilever span of 70 meters, which in 1905 had to give way to the expansion of the station facilities , became known in Europe . The covered wooden bridge Forbach (Northern Black Forest) over the Murg, originally rebuilt in 1955 , originally planned and built by Otto Lindemann from 1778, with its 38 meters span is regionally referred to as the “longest cantilevered, covered and, due to its stability, drivable wooden bridge in Europe”.
Centralized state bridge construction administration
Perhaps the most important development for European bridge construction was initiated under the French King Louis XIV by Jean-Baptiste Colbert , who in 1669 created the position of the state Commissaire des ponts et chaussées (for example: Commissioner for bridge and road construction ) and during his tenure until In 1683 the state budget for infrastructure measures thirty-fold. 1716 was under Louis XV. the Corps des ingénieurs des ponts et chaussées (for example: civil service of bridge and road construction engineers ) was established and in 1747 the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées was founded (which only bears this name since 1775). Its first leader was Jean-Rodolphe Perronet , who decisively determined its further development. He abandoned the rule that had been in force until then that the pillar strength had to be about a fifth of the span of the bridge arch. With the Pont de Neuilly and the Pont de la Concorde in Paris, he built bridges with wide-span, flat arches and slender pillars, the pillar thickness of which was less than a ninth of the span and which thus became a model for further bridge construction.
Further development
Large bridges are being built with increasing frequency, especially over the Loire in France. The Pont Jacques Gabriel in Blois, opened in 1724, is the last large bridge where the roadway rises to the top over the large arch in the middle. The development is moving towards level roadways, the narrowest possible pillars and the same bridge arches that are stretched as far as possible in the form of segment arches and more and more basket arches, such as B. at the Pont George V (1763) in Orléans , at the Pont Régemortes (also 1763) in Moulins (Allier) or at the Pont Cessart (1770) in Saumur . Caissons were first used in London when Westminster Bridge was built in 1750 . The Skerton Bridge (1787) in Lancaster is the first bridge in England with a flat surface. The Old Bridge (1788) in Heidelberg, built on the pillars of the earlier bridge, or the Pont de Lavaur (1791) in southern France, which consists of a mighty arch, are still comparatively conventional .
One of the special cases is the bridge in the Viamala , opened in 1739 , which, from a purely technical point of view, is a simple stone arch bridge, is certainly remarkable due to its location in the poorly accessible Via Mala between almost vertical rock walls and around 70 m above the bottom of the gorge. Also noteworthy is the Old Bridge in Pontypridd , Wales , which had the largest span in Great Britain at the time with a slender segment arch of 43 m , but was difficult to use for wagons because of the narrow and steeply sloping carriageway. The coat bridge in Český Krumlov in the Czech Republic , completed in its current form in 1777, is a three-storey bridge over the moat of the castle there , over which an open passage and two closed floors lead. In Ronda , Andalusia , the Puente Nuevo was completed at the end of the 18th century over the 100 m deep Tajo Gorge, which includes two older and lower bridges in its construction.
Ottoman Empire
The best known is probably the Stari most (old bridge) in Mostar over the Neretva . The architect Mimar Hajrudin , a student of the eminent architect Sinan , built this bridge, consisting of a single, irregular arch between 1566 and 1567. The Djawolski most in today's Bulgaria is a bit older. The bridge over the Drina in Višegrad , also in Bosnia and Herzegovina , is said to have been planned by the architect Sinan and was built from 1571 to 1578. It has 12 pointed arches, which were widespread in the Ottoman Empire, which is also evident, for example, in the Edirne bridges . The Egri Bridge , which crosses the Kızılırmak near Sivas with 18 arches , was built in the 16th or 17th century. The Arta bridge in Greece, completed in 1612, consists of four slender arches of different sizes with openings in the pillars that were often used by the Romans, but were later rarely used. The most important Ottoman bridge in Albania is the bridge of Mes near Shkodra , which was probably built in the 18th century and crosses the Kir with 15 different arches . It was not until 1842 that the 235 m long Meriç Bridge was built, the youngest of the Edirne bridges.
Persia
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The Zayandeh Rud , the most water-rich river in Central Iran, was of great importance for the Isfahan oasis over the centuries . Several important bridges cross the river, some of which also act as dams to regulate water. The Pol-e Shahrestan is the oldest of these bridges. Its pillars are possibly from the 3rd century, the twelve pointed arches made of bricks from the 11th century. The Si-o-se Pol ( 33-arch bridge ; also known as the Allah Verdi Khan Bridge ) was commissioned in 1602 by Shah Abbas I , who moved his seat of government to Isfahan in 1597. The 290 m long and 13.5 m wide bridge is a two-story viaduct with covered arcades and a tea house at one end. The Hadschu Bridge ( Pol-e Chādschu ), begun in 1650, is only 128 m long and 11.7 m wide with its 23 arches, but with its two floors and the octagonal central building makes an even more spacious impression.
China
Out of the large number of historical bridges in China, only a few examples can be given. The Xiaoshang Bridge , built in 584, already used a segment arch with attached passages to reduce water resistance. In 605 AD, Li Chun built the well-known An-Ji Qiao (also called Zhaozhou Bridge) over the Chiao Shui River in the south of Hebei Province as a flat segment arch bridge with a clearance of 37.5 m and an arrow height of seven meters built. This significantly wider bridge has two passages on both sides. The slightly curved bridge deck gives it an elegant look. The Yongtong Bridge (1190–1195) is similar to the much older Anji Bridge, but was decorated with a series of bas-reliefs after its completion .
The Dongjin Bridge in Ganzhou , Jiangxi Province is one of the many pontoon bridges in China. In 806 AD the Baodai Bridge was first built in Suzhou (Jiangsu) , which was destroyed and rebuilt several times and whose current construction with numerous brick arches dates from 1446. The Luoyang Bridge (1053-1059) is the oldest stone-plate bridge in China that still exists. The longest flagstone bridge in China with over 2000 m is the Anping Bridge (also called Wuli Bridge) in Jinjiang (Quanzhou), Fujian, built between 1138 and 1151 . In 1170 the 518 m long Guangji Bridge (also Xiangzi Bridge) near Chaozhou , Guangdong, was completed, which was partly designed as a pontoon bridge in order to be able to open it for shipping.
Marco Polo reported on over twelve bridges over numerous canals in the provincial capital Yangzhou alone . Even then, Arab and Persian contemporaries admired the historical arch bridge Lugou Qiao near Beijing, which was completed in 1192, adorned with many stone lions and still exists today . The Gaoliang Bridge (Jade Ribbon Bridge) in the New Summer Palace in Beijing is one of the most famous so-called moon bridges. The Seventeen Arch Bridge, also completed in 1764, is also located there.
Himalayas and neighboring mountain regions
The steep, deep gorges in the Himalayas and the neighboring mountain regions with raging rivers that swell rapidly when it rains required bridges high above normal water levels, which inevitably meant bridges with large spans. Wooden yoke bridges and stone arch bridges could not meet these requirements. The rivers were therefore crossed with a wide variety of rope bridges , in the simplest case with a rope stretched across the river that one could hang onto, to bridges with several suspension ropes that were connected with loops and cross ropes so that people with heavy loads could cross them could pass upright. From a technical point of view, these were always tension band bridges , where the path over the bridge followed the curve of the sagging ropes.
The first verifiable suspension bridges were probably the chain bridges built from stainless iron by the Buddhist philosopher and bridge builder Thangtong Gyelpo in Tibet and Bhutan . The most important of these was the Chagsam Bridge built in 1430 over the Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) with a span of approx. 137 m, a span that was only exceeded by Thomas Telford's Menai Bridge , opened in 1826 . At the same time, the Chagsam Bridge was probably the first real suspension bridge in which the largely horizontal path across the bridge is attached to separate suspension cables. These bridges existed until modern times and some still exist. The 1706 built Luding Bridge over the Dadu River in the Chinese Sichuan is another example of an iron chain bridge .
South America
In South America, the Incas had built an extensive network of roads along the Pacific coast and in the Andes in some of the most inaccessible spots on our planet within about 200 years , partially expanding existing paths of the previous cultures. Also in order not to encourage the lowland Indians to invade , a 4800 km long Inca road ran at a dizzying height over high mountain ridges of up to 5000 m, overcame deep gorges partly with suspension bridges keshwa chacas (quechua = bridges) made of 7000 m of handmade ropes, underneath the 60 m long Q'iswachaka suspension bridge over the Río Apurímac , on others wooden and stone bridges are built on stone pillars. Their suspension bridges consisted of ropes and reed mats, the span of which could be 30 meters. Some were intended more for the fast runner, the Chasquis and consisted of only a few ropes, others had to make it possible to cross a herd of llama , which is impossible with a bridge through which animals can look down into the gorge. In the vicinity of the legendary Inca city of Machu Picchu, there is even a bascule bridge on a narrow Inca trail . Individual Inca roads are still in use today. The suspension bridges require regular maintenance and renewal, as the handmade ropes can withstand the stresses of daily temperature and humidity fluctuations surprisingly well, but are subject to an aging process.
Bridge building since the beginning of industrialization
The Industrial Revolution made iron available in large quantities first in the form of cast iron , later as wrought iron, and finally as steel . Shortly thereafter, cement , concrete and reinforced concrete were developed. These materials opened up new paths and dimensions for bridge construction that were previously not possible. That is why different forms of bridges were developed, the history of which must be presented individually.
Development of structural engineering
With the rapid development of technology in the 19th century, however, it must be taken into account that the structural analysis probably only found practically applicable methods in the middle of the century. Louis-Joseph Vicat was one of the first to observe and follow the periodic opening and closing of the joints on the clamped arches as a function of temperature on the Dordogne bridge in Souillac, which was completed in 1824 , and thus gave impetus for the further development of the statics of the bridge arches. Henri Navier , who is considered to be the founder of structural engineering , published a summary of his lectures at the École nationale des ponts et chaussées in 1826 , the work of Émile Clapeyron was published in 1857, and around 1865 Luigi Cremona developed the Cremonaplan , later named after him , the main work of Karl Culmann appeared in 1866 and Heinrich Gottfried Gerber received the patent in the same year for the Gerber carrier , which was later named after him , to name only five of the many important names. Despite all the progress, Paul Séjourné was able to begin his great work on bridge arches ( Grandes Voûtes ) at the beginning of the 20th century with the sentence: Bridge arches are built according to the arches built: it's a matter of experience.
Iron and steel bridges
Cast iron bridges
A new age in bridge building was marked with The Iron Bridge (originally called Coalbrookdale Bridge ) over the Severn between England and Wales near Shrewsbury . At the instigation of John Wilkinson , the bridge with a span of 30 meters was built in 1779 by Abraham Darby III from cast iron parts that were supplied from his foundry in nearby Coalbrookdale . In the absence of experience with the new and brittle material, it was built according to the principles of timber construction.
Cast iron has a high compressive strength and usually a tensile strength that is four times lower. During the first decades of the development of this technology, however, these values fluctuated strongly, not only from foundry to foundry, but also from tap to tap. The fluctuations concerned not only the absolute values, but also the relationship between compressive and tensile strength with factors from three to seven times. The construction of cast iron bridges therefore depended to a large extent on advances in casting technology, careful selection of materials and careful static calculations, which, however, were not yet very advanced.
The bridge in Coalbrookdale was followed by some bridges in parks only for pedestrians, for example the two Chinese bridges in Alexander Park in Tsarskoe Selo from 1782 to 1786 and the Iron Bridge in Wörlitz Park in 1791 .
In 1793, construction began on the cast-iron Wearmouth Bridge in Sunderland in north-east England, which was completed in 1796 and had the largest arch in the world at the time, with a very flat segment arch and a span of 72 meters.
The first German cast iron bridge was built in 1796 in the Silesian Łażany / Laasan over the Striegau water, the parts of which had been cast in Malapane .
At the same time, the British engineer and pioneer of bridge construction Thomas Telford (1757-1834) built his first canal bridge in Longdon-on-Tern on the Shrewsbury Canal , which was assembled from cast iron plates and parts. Shortly afterwards he built the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct , on which the Llangollen Canal also runs in a cast-iron trough and which has since been the tallest and longest aqueduct in Great Britain. The many canals that were built at this time for the transport of large quantities of goods also required numerous bridges on which the towing horses could cross branches and junctions of branch canals. In the English industrial areas, these roving bridges were often made of cast iron.
One of Thomas Telford's major bridges is the Craigellachie Bridge , a strut-truss arched bridge that was built over the Spey from 1812 to 1815 . Telford had a series of arched bridges follow her, with very slender arches and narrow struts. Telford, who always carefully checked the quality of the castings produced, had obviously requested a special cast iron that could withstand the tensile stresses already occurring on this bridge. Of particular historical interest is Telford's design for the London Bridge from 1800 for a single arched cast iron bridge with a span of approx. 183 m.
Also noteworthy is the Ha'penny Bridge in Dublin , built in 1816 , which spans the 43-meter-wide Liffey with an elegant, flat arch . Its individual parts came from the same foundry in Coalbrookdale as the Iron Bridge. The first Southwark Bridge (1819) designed by John Rennie had the largest span of all cast iron arch bridges ever built at 73 m.
The Green Bridge (1806) in Saint Petersburg, designed by William Heste , as well as his Red , Blue and Pozelujew Bridges used a new construction method in that the bridge was not assembled from individual struts, but from hollow cast iron blocks. In 1840 they were supplemented by the Yellow Bridge, built according to plans by Vasily Petrovich Stassov .
While few cast iron bridges were built in the United States and the first were built between 1836 and 1839, the numerous bridges in Central Park of New York City designed by Calvert Vaux between 1858 and 1873 deserve special mention.
In France, between 1802 and 1807, the Pont d'Austerlitz and the Pont des Arts in Paris, which were completed a little earlier, were the first cast-iron bridges in France. This was not followed until 1834 by the Pont du Carrousel planned by Antoine-Rémy Polonceau , who had been inspired by Carl Friedrich von Wiebeking and Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach to create an arched bridge made of cast-iron pipes with cast-iron rings to elevate the girder. Polonceau's system was later used on the Pont Saint-Thomas (1841) in Strasbourg and the Old Bridge in Bourguignon-lès-Conflans , the two oldest still existing cast iron bridges in France.
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Railway bridges were mostly still designed as stone arch bridges, but the rapidly growing English railway network also included a number of bridges with cast iron structures. The first iron railway bridge was George Stephenson's Gaunless Bridge from 1824 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway . After several bridges collapsed due to the breakage of cast iron parts, other cast iron railway bridges were banned in Great Britain.
In France, a type of bridge was created with wide-span segment arches made of bolted cast-iron arch sections and built-in parts for the elevation of the deck girder. Starting with the Nevers railway bridge (1850) and the approximately simultaneous Tarascon – Beaucaire railway bridge , a number of other railway and road bridges , often made in the same foundry in Fourchambault , were produced, such as: B. the Pont d'El Kantara (1865) in Constantine (Algeria) and the Seine bridges Pont de Clichy (1866), Pont de Sully (1877) and probably the last bridge built from cast iron, the Pont de l'Île Saint-Denis ( 1905).
For valley bridges over narrow gorges, a mixed form was created with wrought iron lattice girders , later also with half-timbered structures as road girders and pillars made of cast iron pipes, which were also stiffened by wrought iron frameworks. Based on the example of the 62 m high Crumlin Viaduct (1857), the 82 m high Grandfey Viaduct (1862) was built, in which the deck girder was inserted for the first time using a method developed by Ferdinand Mathieu . Wilhelm Nördling , the chief engineer of the Paris – Orléans railway, developed the Viaduc de Busseau (1864) and finally, together with two other bridges, the Viaduc de la Bouble and the Viaduc de Rouzat (built by Gustave Eiffel ) , where only the high pillars remain had four cast iron pipes as load-bearing elements. This hybrid form was mainly used by the French iron industry on numerous bridges across Europe.
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In Germany, after the above-mentioned bridge in Łażany / Laasan in Silesia, two small pedestrian bridges were built in the park of Charlottenburg Palace in Berlin, which were also manufactured in 1802 by the Malapane Royal Iron Foundry in Silesia. This was followed by comparatively few cast-iron bridges, such as the Great Friedrichsbrücke in 1823 and the Weidendammer Bridge over the Spree in Berlin in 1826, the Long Bridge over the Havel in Potsdam in 1825 and a number of bridges on the Baden Main Railway, built between 1840 and 1863 . The reason was seen in the fact that Germany produced comparatively small amounts of iron using a technology that was not yet fully developed, while Great Britain alone produced more than half of the iron smelted in all of Europe. Therefore, there were only a few efficient companies that could manufacture and process cast iron in larger quantities and with consistent quality, including Borsig in Berlin, E. Kessler in Karlsruhe , Maffei in Munich and the machine factory of the Vienna-Gloggnitz Railway. However, the bridges of the Baden main line were soon exchanged for less vulnerable, wrought-iron bridges. One of these bridges was later reused as a road bridge over the Neumagen in Staufen im Breisgau , where it has since been integrated into a pedestrian zone.
The Firth-of-Tay Bridge between Edinburgh and Dundee in Scotland , built between 1871 and 1878 and over three kilometers long, was built with insufficient assumptions about the loads acting on its cast-iron pillars. At the end of 1879, the bridge collapsed in a storm under a train, killing 75 people. With this catastrophe, the era of the cast iron bridges ended with a few stragglers.
Wrought iron bridges
The introduction of wrought iron produced using the puddle process , which is more elastic than cast iron, can withstand higher tensile stresses and has significantly more uniform ratios of compressive and tensile strength, made it possible to build bridges with larger spans, even if the necessary calculation methods were not yet fully developed. Certain important developments in the iron industry were also of importance for bridge construction, such as the manufacture of the first T-beam rolled from one piece (1830), the invention of the steam hammer (1842) and the universal rolling mill (1848), with the double T. -Carrier could be rolled from one piece for the first time.
For his Britannia Bridge , completed in 1850, with the then extraordinary span of 140 m and its smaller predecessor, the Conwy Railway Bridge , Robert Stephenson chose a closed box girder as the safest system through which the train drove like a tunnel. Stephenson repeated this tunnel-like box girder on the Pont Victoria in Montreal , Canada , completed in 1859 , which was replaced by a steel truss bridge in 1898.
In France, Eugène Flachat used the principle for the reconstruction of the Asnières railway bridge over the Seine , completed in 1852 , which was also France's first wrought-iron bridge. However, their hollow boxes were only 2.28 m high and the four tracks lay on the five parallel box girders. This type of construction was modified three years later for the Langon (Gironde) railway bridge over the Garonne by arranging the tracks between high solid wall girders .
Wide-span segment arch bridges with no or only a few pillars were assembled from several parallel, wrought-iron arch girders and an elevated roadway. Examples are the Pont d'Arcole (1856) in Paris, the Westminster Bridge (1862) in London, the Pfaffendorfer Bridge (1864) over the Rhine in Koblenz , the Duisburg-Hochfelder Railway Bridge (1873), the Theodor-Heuss-Brücke ( 1885) in Mainz, the Grünentaler Hochbrücke (1882) and the Levensauer Hochbrücke (1894), the Old Rhine Bridge in Bonn (1898) and the Ernst Ludwig Bridge over the Rhine in Worms (1900).
The fully locked, but very expensive box girder was converted into a lattice girder box with a close-knit network of diagonal bars in subsequent bridges such as the Dirschau Bridge planned by Johann Carl Wilhelm Lentze , the Cologne Cathedral Bridge (1859), the Argenteuil railway bridge (1863) and numerous other bridges in Europe which had been developed by the American architect Ithiel Town for covered wooden bridges around 30 years earlier . This system was z. B. also still used for the Rhine bridge Waldshut – Koblenz , the Kew Railway Bridge (1869), the Stadlauer Ostbahnbrücke in Vienna (1870) or the road bridge of Cubzac near Bordeaux (1883).
The material, which is resistant to both compression and tension, led Georg Ludwig Friedrich Laves to develop the lens carrier , which Friedrich August von Pauli further developed (Pauli carrier) and used in the Großhesseloher Bridge, which opened in 1857 in the south of Munich . From 1860 to 1862 led Heinrich Gottfried Gerber with the Mainz Rhine bridge of the biggest Pauli girder bridge. The same principle was applied by Isambard Kingdom Brunel to the Royal Albert Bridge in Plymouth , a unique construction consisting of a mighty pipe bend as the upper chord and a pair of chains as the lower chord. The Pauli girder system was used by Gustav Lindenthal, who was born in Brno and later emigrated to the United States, for the Smithfield Street Bridge in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , which opened in 1883 and is now one of the oldest steel bridges in the United States. In Central Europe, the lens carrier was soon simplified to a fish belly carrier , which was used on numerous railway bridges until around 1930.
Lattice girders were used in the USA for wooden bridges and were further developed because they were easier to build than the arched structures known from Europe. The railway network, which grew rapidly from 1850 onwards, required numerous bridges. In the then still wooded land, valleys were mostly crossed with wooden, later with wrought iron and finally steel trestle bridges . The American Portage Bridge (1852) was the tallest wooden trestle bridge of its time. It influenced the Crumlin Viaduct (1857) in South Wales, which had a similar, but made of wrought iron, truss construction of the deck girder.
Karl Culmann had brought his “truss theory” with him from a trip to America. The static calculation methods developed by him and others allowed simpler calculations of truss structures than with lattice girders. As the trusses consisted of significantly fewer parts, the lattice girder bridges were gradually replaced by truss bridges.
At first they were used in girder bridges with parallel upper and lower chords, such as the Passerelle Eiffel (1860), a railway bridge over the Garonne near Bordeaux , or the Griethausen railway bridge (1865). Shortly thereafter, the semi-parabolic girder , used for the first time on the Culemborg railway bridge (1868), and the Swedish girder , which was soon widely used , followed B. at the Herrenkrug railway bridge over the Elbe .
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In the United States, the great rivers of the Ohio , Mississippi, and Missouri were serious obstacles to the expansion of the railroad network. The Ohio Falls Bridge (1870) in Louisville , designed by Albert Fink , was the first of the great railroad bridges over the Ohio . Others soon followed, such as the Cincinnati Southern Bridge (1877). George S. Morison built more than twenty large railway bridges over these streams. The large American truss bridges mostly had parallel upper and lower chords with inclined end posts and initially consistently articulated node connections by bolts, in contrast to the rigid connections common in Europe by riveted gusset plates . For reasons of operational safety, however, the number of riveted bridges increased towards the end of the century.
Heinrich Gottfried Gerber developed the tanner girder by inserting joints into longer girders and thus achieved a significantly simplified static calculation of beam girders. The first two tanner girders were built in Germany, but after the construction of the High Bridge and the Niagara Cantilever Bridge, they were initially widely used in the USA.
Gustave Eiffel , who had already carried out a number of metal structures and bridges with his own company, became famous for the Ponte Maria Pia , opened in 1877 , which crosses the deeply cut Douro in Porto with a large arch . The large, parabolic - shaped truss arch with a span of 160 m, which goes back to his partner Théophile Seyrig , set standards for bridge construction, as did the cantilever construction , which was only recently introduced in the USA by J. Eads at the Eads Bridge of St. Louis had been introduced. A few years later, Gustave Eiffel began building the similar but significantly larger Garabit Viaduct , which, after separating from Seyrig, was now calculated by Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier and which went into operation in 1884. Meanwhile, Seyrig, now working for a Belgian company, had received the order for the Ponte Dom Luís I , which connects the old town of Porto with the opposite Vila Nova de Gaia , again with a large parabolic arch with a span of 172 m, which supports a railway ( today a tram), in which, however, a road bridge is suspended on the lower level.
Jules Röthlisberger was influenced by the Ponte Maria Pia in the construction of the Kirchenfeld Bridge in Bern and the Ponte San Michele in the Italian region of Lombardy , which opened in 1883 and 1889, respectively.
A special case is the King Albert Bridge over the Elbe in Dresden , which was completed in 1893 and was soon referred to as the Blue Wonder . The design initiated by Claus Koepcke was called a “stiffened 3-hinged suspension bridge”, but actually corresponds to a cantilever bridge or an inverted three -hinged arch bridge . The Blue Wonder remained unique, the Koepcke system was not repeated.
Steel bridges
The Bessemer process was patented in 1856, the first Siemens-Martin furnace in Germany was put into operation around 1869 and the Thomas-Gilchrist process was published in 1878. After that, however, a few years passed until, on the one hand, the steelworks were able to produce steel in large quantities and in reliably constant quality and, on the other hand, the builders - mostly railway companies - gained confidence in the new building material and the authorities, after extensive tests, approved the material (mostly Siemens Martin-Stahl) also for bridge construction.
The Dutch led the way when they had the Culemborg railway bridge built by the Harkort factory between 1863 and 1868 , using Bessemer steel for bridges for the first time and also using the first semi-parabolic girders over what was then the largest span . The Nijmegen railway bridge (1879) followed shortly thereafter. Chrome steel was used for the first time in the Eads Bridge (1874) in St. Louis , Missouri , while the Smithfield Street Bridge (1883) in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania was also partially built with steel. The Poughkeepsie Bridge (1888) over the Hudson River consisted of several steel tanner girders , only the connection to the bank was made of wrought iron. The Forth Bridge (1890) in Scotland was the first bridge whose superstructure was made entirely of Siemens-Martin steel.
This marked the beginning of the age of steel bridges, in which larger and larger bridges were built in rapid succession, especially in the course of railway construction, of which only a few can be mentioned here. The Lansdowne Bridge (1889) was made in England, shipped to British India and assembled there to form a bridge over the Indus . Similarly, the Malleco Viaduct (1890) made in France was built in Chile .
In the USA, the Frisco Bridge (1892) planned by George S. Morison in Memphis (Tennessee) was the first fixed crossing over the Mississippi River below St. Louis . Ralph Modjeski then became a leader in the construction of bridges over the great rivers , which was later followed by Frank M. Masters with a number of other important bridges . A whole series of truss cantilever bridges were built on the lower Mississippi, all the way down to the Crescent City Connection (1958/1988) in New Orleans and to the Gramercy Bridge (1995), probably the last large bridge of this type.
In France, the Pont Lafayette (1890) in Lyon was the first steel road bridge with a flat segment arch, followed by the Pont Mirabeau (1896) and the Pont Alexandre III (1900) in Paris, as well as the Pont de l'Université (1903) , again in Lyon.
In Germany, the large railway bridge built from 1891 to 1893 over the Vistula near Fordon (today the Rudolf Modrzejewski Bridge in Bydgoszcz ) was the first bridge built entirely from steel, with Thomas steel being used for the first time in addition to Siemens-Martin steel. In Austria only Siemens-Martin-Stahl was approved for bridges in 1892, and then also Thomas-Stahl in 1904. The Müngstener Brücke (1897) became a highly regarded large arched railway bridge, which exceeded the Garabit Viaduct with a span of 170 m.
One of the largest bridges in Europe at that time was the Anghel-Saligny Bridge (1895) at Cernavodă in Romania, which spanned the Danube . In the course of the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway , numerous large bridges were necessary, such as those in Novosibirsk (1897) over the Ob and those in Krasnoyarsk (1899) over the Yenisei . In Africa, the French colonial administration of Saint-Louis (Senegal ) had a connection to the mainland established with the Pont Faidherbe (1897). In the USA, the Upper Steel Arch Bridge (1898) set a new record for arch bridges over the Niagara River with a span of 256 m.
In North America, the initially wooden, later wrought-iron trestle bridges were often replaced by steel structures, such as B. the Kinzua Bridge (1900). The Goteik Viaduct (1900) was built by an American company under British management for the Burma Railroad Co. in what is now Myanmar . A few years later, the Lethbridge Viaduct (1907) was built in Canada , which is still the largest trestle bridge in the world.
The extraordinary Viaur Viaduct (1902) was built for a railway line in the south-western Massif Central , one of the few cantilever bridges without suspension girders whose cantilever girders meet at a height of 116 m above the Viaur in a joint.
A little later in Africa, the Victoria Falls Bridge (1905) was assembled from the parts produced in England to form a truss arch bridge over the Zambezi , which offers a spectacular view of the falls.
Large half-timbered arch bridges were built on the Rhine, such as the Ernst Ludwig Bridge (1900) in Worms , the nearby Rhine Bridge in Worms (1900) and the Hohenzollern Bridge (1911) in Cologne . In Wilhelmshaven the biggest was swing bridge in Germany, the Kaiser Wilhelm Bridge taken (1907) in operation.
The Québec Bridge over the Saint Lawrence River in Canada , begun in 1903, was to surpass the Forth Bridge and become the largest bridge in the world, with a span of 549 m larger than the New York suspension bridges of the time. When the almost complete southern part of the cantilever truss bridge collapsed in 1907, the experts realized that they still lacked essential knowledge for the construction of such large structures, including the buckling strength of steel girders. The new building on the basis of a significantly improved design ultimately led to the largest Gerber girder bridge in the world in 1919 after the suspended girder crashed and only its new building could be installed .
The half-finished Queensboro Bridge (1909) in New York City was checked after the Québec Bridge collapsed, but was then completed. It is also a cantilever bridge without a suspension bracket.
The Haus-Knipp railway bridge (1912) over the Rhine and the Rendsburg high bridge (1913) over the Kiel Canal were other important bridge constructions of that time. a. the Edea Bridge in Cameroon (1911), the Luokou Railway Bridge (1912) in China and the Euphrates Bridge of the Baghdad Railway (1913).
The Hardinge Bridge (1915) over the Padma in today's Bangladesh , with 15 openings of 105 m each one of the most important bridges in British India , was built from parts produced in England, although sea transport at the beginning of the First World War was particularly carried out in the Indian Ocean used SMS Emden was impaired.
The Sciotoville Bridge (1917) over the Ohio River was the world's longest continuous girder construction . In New York City, the Hell Gate Bridge (1917) was opened as the most important part of a 5 km long series of bridges. It had a span of 298 m and thus the largest half-timbered arch in the world. It became the model for the Sydney Harbor Bridge (1932), which was supposed to set a new record with a 503 m span, but overtook the Bayonne Bridge (1931), which began later but was completed a few months earlier, with a span of 510 m.
The Puente Carretero (1927) built by GHH in Argentina was compensation for war damage in the First World War . The Carquinez Bridge (1927) in the San Francisco Bay Area was the largest west of the Mississippi.
The first welded bridges were built in 1928: a short railroad bridge to the Westinghouse Electric plant in Turtle Creek, Pennsylvania and the Maurzyce Bridge , a 27 m long road bridge in Poland. Gutehoffnungshütte (GHH) built its first fully welded railway bridge with solid wall girders and 10 m field width in 1929 . Although they caused a sensation in the professional world, welded bridges only became common after the Second World War .
The Lake Champlain Bridge (1929) was the first three fields continuous truss - arch bridge , a later bridges with suspended roadway advanced design ( continous through truss arch bridge ), built often in USA. The Julien Dubuque Bridge (1943), the Delaware River – Turnpike Toll Bridge (1956) and the Francis Scott Key Bridge (1977) in Baltimore are other examples.
Of the steel bridges built in Europe between the two world wars , the first to be mentioned are Lillebæltsbroen (1935) and Storstrømsbroen (1937) in Denmark, as well as the Waal Bridge Nijmegen and the Rijnbrug (1936), today's John Frost Bridge in Arnhem Tied arch bridge of the Netherlands. Outside Europe, the Ponte Dona Ana (1935) should be mentioned, which crosses the Zambezi in Mozambique with 40 lattice girders and is the largest railway bridge in Africa. In a remote part of Zimbabwe is the Birchenough Bridge (1935), which was commissioned by the Beit Trust to improve road connections in southern Africa. The Howrah Bridge (1943) between Calcutta and Howrah , which is still one of the world's largest cantilever bridges , also dates back to a British initiative .
The Rainbow Bridge (1941) below Niagara Falls is one of the first bridges with arched ribs made of box girders .
Stone arch bridges
The construction of stone arch bridges over rivers was initially largely unaffected by industrialization. River bridges had more or less flat arches, the spans being extended very carefully. Examples of the increasing number of bridges are the Hohebacher Jagstbrücke (1810) or the Pont d'Iéna (1814) in Paris, the Pirna city bridge (1875) over the Elbe or the Anna-Ebert-Brücke (1882) in Magdeburg . For the first time, the Grosvenor Bridge (1833) in Chester with a span of 61 m clearly exceeded the spans that have remained below 50 m, which have been customary since the Middle Ages. This Grosvenor Bridge in Chester was modeled on Alfred L. Rives, the first American to graduate from the École nationale des ponts et chaussées , when he built the Union Arch Bridge near Washington, DC, built from 1857 to 1864, with a new record span of 67 m planned. In doing so, he introduced calculation and construction methods from France and England to the USA, but since the time of the great stone bridges there was drawing to a close, this was of no far-reaching significance. Both bridges were, if not the first, at least among the first in which the space above the hips of large arches was not solidly filled with material, but consisted of arched structures to reduce the weight on the main arch.
The rapidly expanding railway networks required bridges that could withstand the heavy weight of the trains and their braking and starting loads, as well as being as rigid and vibration-free as possible, so that numerous conservatively designed, particularly massive stone arch bridges were built. Alois Negrelli attracted particular attention with the Negrelliho viaduct , a railway bridge in Prague with 85 flat, up to 25 m wide segment arches over a length of 1111 m, which was then the longest railway bridge in Europe. Railways also need routes with large arc radii and low gradients, which often cannot be adapted to the local terrain, so that high and long bridges were necessary over entire valleys that could withstand the loads of rail traffic. With a few exceptions, stone-walled viaducts with high pillars and long series of traditional round arches were therefore built almost everywhere in Europe, with spans of around ten meters in most cases.
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From the almost unmanageable number of viaducts, only a few examples such as the Burtscheider Viaduct (1840), the Starrucca Viaduct (1848) in the USA, the Bietigheimer Railway Viaduct (1853), the Viaduc de Chaumont (1857) and finally the Elstertal Bridge ( 1851) as the second largest and the Göltzschtalbrücke (1851) as the largest brick bridge in the world.
The larger arched bridges also required larger falsework , which thus became their own complex constructions and a considerable cost factor. Paul Séjourné began to counteract this development with his Viaduc de Lavaur (1884) and the Pont Antoinette (also 1884), which was dedicated to his wife , by introducing the double-layer arches, which were already known to the Romans but had been forgotten, of which initially only the first, comparatively, was introduced easy position on the falsework was bricked. This arch then formed the falsework for the next layer and the further construction of the bridge. In addition, he no longer filled in the space above the hips of the arches to form a massive bridge, but instead placed a series of smaller, open arches on the main arch that supported the bridge panel and reduced the weight on the main arch.
In the case of the Adolphe Bridge , which was built in Luxembourg from 1899 to 1903 and had a record span of 84 m, he split the main arch into two narrow, parallel arches on which the smaller rows of raised arches supported the reinforced concrete bridge. This meant that the narrow falsework for one arch could then also be used for the other. Finally, he achieved considerable material savings by not supporting the falsework on the ground but on the sides of the pillars and bracing them with wire. Séjouné repeated this concept a few years later at the Pont des Catalans (1907) in Toulouse and at the Pont Sidi Rached (1912) in Constantine , Algeria .
Séjourné thus created a type of bridge arch that quickly spread, was soon also used in the field of concrete bridges and is now one of the standard forms of concrete arch bridges.
In Germany, the Gutachtal Viaduct (1900) in the Black Forest and the Max Joseph Bridge (1902) in Munich, both with a span of 64 m, were among the first stone arch bridges to show this type without any decorations.
Because of the rapidly expanding concrete bridges, the age of stone arch bridges was slowly coming to an end. The Friedensbrücke (1905) in Plauen (also Syratalviadukt ) had the largest span of all stone bridges with 90 m, but the quarry stone and cement mortar masonry already represented the transition to a concrete arch.
With the Rockville Bridge (1902) in Pennsylvania , a stone arch bridge filled with stamped concrete, the Pennsylvania Railroad turned away from iron bridges in search of a permanent bridge with low maintenance costs. The longest stone arch bridge in the world with a length of 1164 m was followed by numerous shorter bridges of comparable construction. In the first three decades of the twentieth century , the Rhaetian Railway built a series of stone viaducts for railway lines in the mountains for similar reasons , such as the Solis Viaduct , the Landwasser Viaduct and the Wiesen Viaduct . As part of the Wocheiner Bahn to Trieste, the Imperial and Royal Ministry of Railways had the Salcanobrücke (1906) built with an 85 m wide opening over the Isonzo , which is still the largest stone arched railway bridge. With the second Ravennabrücke (1927) of the Höllentalbahn in the Black Forest and the huge Elstertal motorway bridge begun in 1938 , the age had come to an end for the time being.
In 1960, however, China began building larger stone arch bridges with concrete bridge panels, which probably ended with the Danhe Bridge in Shanxi , which was completed in 2000 and spans 146 m .
Viaduc de Lavaur
Pont Adolphe, Luxembourg
Max Joseph Bridge, Munich
Rockville Bridge over the Susquehanna River
Landwasser Viaduct
Concrete bridges
The beginnings of concrete bridges can be traced back to Louis-Joseph Vicat , who invented artificial hydraulic lime without ever applying for a patent and was allowed to use it in the construction of the pillars of the Souillac Dordogne bridge, which was built in 1812–1824 . In 1824 Joseph Aspdin received a patent for artificial roman cement , which he called Portland cement , but which only became a Portland cement in today's sense after Vicat and Isaac Charles Johnson discovered the importance of sintering in 1840/1844 and with its improved process.
Bridges made of unreinforced concrete
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Despite Vicat's publications and the honors he received, the new building material found almost no interest among the established practitioners of the Corps des ingénieurs des ponts et chaussées (to which Vicat himself belonged until his retirement in 1852). This also applied to the stamped concrete developed by François Martin Lebrun and François Coignet . The three small bridges that the architect Lebrun built between 1835 and 1841 for the Tarn-et-Garonne département in southern France were the first concrete bridges in the world and were positively assessed by experts, but were soon forgotten again. The small footbridge built in 1855 by Louis-Joseph Vicat and his son Joseph Vicat in the Jardin des Plantes in Grenoble , which is often regarded as the first concrete bridge, has also received little attention.
The world's first large concrete bridges were the aqueduct bridges over the Yonne and the Loing , which Eugène Belgrand had built between 1866 and 1874 as part of the Aqueduc de la Vanne he created to supply Paris with water. These bridges are all the more remarkable as the new material, stamped concrete, was immediately used on a large scale without any smaller precursors. It must be taken into account that Eugène Belgrand was a graduate of the École nationale des ponts et chaussées , but under Georges-Eugène Haussmann he had extensive powers and was not bound by the regulations of the official bridge building.
But these bridges also found no immediate successors. It was not until 1880 that Scotland began to build railway viaducts from rammed concrete , such as the Falls of Cruachan Railway Viaduct (1880), the first rammed concrete railway bridge in Great Britain, the Dochart Viaduct , the Killin Rail Viaduct (1886) and the Glenfinnan Viaduct (1898) .
The breakthrough came when Karl von Leibbrand first built massive concrete arch bridges from rammed concrete with a three-hinge arch in 1893 with the Munderking Danube Bridge and in 1895 with the Danube Bridge Inzigkofen , a construction method that was used several times in the following years, for example at the 1896 in Geneva opened Pont de la Coulouvrenière , the Stauffacher Bridge (1899) designed by Robert Maillart in Zurich , the Reichenbach Bridge (1903) and the Wittelsbach Bridge (1904) in Munich, the Upper Iller Bridge (1906) in Kempten and the Augustus Bridge (1910) in Dresden .
Also to be mentioned are the three jointless stamped concrete bridges of those years: the Walnut Lane Bridge (1908) in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania, USA with a span of 71 m, the Detroit Avenue Bridge (1910) over the Rocky River in Cuyahoga County , Ohio with a span of 85.4 m and the Monroe Street Bridge (1911) in Spokane , Washington with a span of 85.6 m. The Pont de la Liberation (1919) in Villeneuve-sur-Lot designed by Eugène Freyssinet had the largest span of all bridges made of stone or unreinforced concrete at 96 m. The 137.5 m arch of the Pont Caquot (1928) next to the old suspension bridge Pont de la Caille was probably the last large arch made of unreinforced concrete.
Reinforced concrete bridges
Coignet, Joseph-Louis Lambot and Thaddeus Hyatt had used reinforced concrete in building construction without, however, arousing the interest of the bridge builders. The trained gardener and entrepreneur Joseph Monier , who had reinforced his plant boxes for orange trees made from the cement at that time with an inlay made of wire mesh, further developed the idea for the construction of water tanks, smaller bridges and concrete girders, but mainly in gardening and landscaping, for which he received a number of patents. As part of other work, Joseph Monier was also commissioned in 1875 to build a 13.80 m long and 4.25 m wide bridge over the moat of Chazelet near Saint-Benoît-du-Sault , Indre , the world's first reinforced concrete bridge but gave the impression of being made of wood. In 1878 Monier received another patent for concrete sleepers and beams with iron reinforcement, which for the first time contained the clear statement that the cement protects the iron from rust. This patent is considered to be the basic patent for reinforced concrete construction.
Since Joseph Monier was neither an engineer nor a member of the Corps des ingénieurs des ponts et chaussées , he could not build bridges in France. The disinterest of the state building authorities continued, even when Monier applied for patents in Austria and Germany. In 1884 Monier received a visit from Conrad Freytag , who acquired licensing rights for Germany. Shortly afterwards the rights were transferred to Gustav Adolf Wayss , an entrepreneur from Frankfurt am Main , who relocated his company to Berlin for better marketing. In the following years, Wayss founded the Actien-Gesellschaft für Monierbauten, formerly GA Wayss & Co. , which later became Beton- und Monierbau AG , together with the Berlin government builder Mathias Koenen . Together with Freytag he founded Wayss & Freytag .
While Monier had created his buildings solely on an empirical basis, Wayss and Koenen began with experiments on two 4.5 m long arches with an arrow height of 45 cm. Koenen was probably the first to recognize that steel and concrete have practically the same expansion coefficients ; he wrote a first theoretical study of compression and tension in reinforced concrete . In 1887 Wayss published the treatise Das System Monier (iron framework with cement coating), which probably also went back to Koenen, in its application to the entire construction industry , which became the basis for the further development of reinforced concrete. In the following four years, a total of 320 reinforced concrete bridges are said to have been built in Germany and Austria. These included the Ludwig Ferdinand Bridge (1892) and the Gerner Bridge (1897) over the Nymphenburger Schlosskanal and the Kabelsteg (1898) over the Isar in Munich.
Meanwhile, François Hennebique had tried to claim the invention of reinforced concrete with his patent applied for in 1892, but was rejected in 1903 in favor of Joseph Monier's patents. Independently of this, he built the Pont Camille-de-Hogues in Châtellerault in 1899, the first large reinforced concrete arch bridge with a central arch span of 50 m.
During this time, bridge engineers who later became famous carried out their first major structures.
The Austrian Josef Melan built several bridges in his Melanbauweise , including 1898, the defunct Schwimmschulstrasse bridge in Steyr and 1901, the Dragon Bridge in Ljubljana / Laibach. The Georgsbrücke (1899) in Meiningen is the oldest of the bridges built and preserved in Germany according to his system. The Chauderon Bridge , built according to his system, was opened in Lausanne in 1905 . Melan construction has spread particularly in the USA and Spain. The Echelsbacher Brücke (1930) and the Ludwigsbrücke (1935) are well-known examples of melan construction in Germany. The Viaducto Martín Gil (1942) in Spain was the largest concrete arch bridge in the world.
The Swiss Robert Maillart designed his first major work in 1901, the Inn Bridge in Zuoz . His Tavanasa Bridge (1904) over the Vorderrhein, which was later destroyed by a debris flow, was the first of a large number of reinforced concrete arch bridges that were designed as three- hinged box girders with open cheeks and that attracted a great deal of attention among experts. The Salginatobel Bridge (1930) is probably his best-known work.
The young Emil Mörsch wrote a treatise on the theoretical foundations of reinforced concrete construction, which became a standard work in six editions. Shortly thereafter, he created the structural-structural design of the Grünwalder Isar Bridge , completed in 1904 , which held the world record for several years with two three-hinged arches with a span of 70 m until it was replaced in 1909 by the Grafton Bridge in Auckland , New Zealand , the design of which Mörsch was reviewing was submitted. With the Gmündertobel Bridge (1908), Mörsch built a clamped, elastic arch without joints, a first example of the integral concrete bridges that are often built to this day.
François Hennebique designed the Ponte del Risorgimento in Rome (built 1909–1911), the first reinforced concrete arch bridge in Italy. Their longest span is 100 m (world record at the time); it has an arrow height of only ten meters. Constructively, it contains elements of a box girder bridge.
In the United States, Ernest L. Ransome had met with disinterest in 1889 with the small Alvord Lake Bridge in San Francisco , the country's first reinforced concrete bridge. A few years later, the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad built the Paulinskill Viaduct (1910) and the Delaware River Viaduct (1910) in the Lackawanna Cut-Off and the Tunkhannock Viaduct (1915) in the Nicholson Cut-Off , which prove to be the largest and largest longest railroad bridge, while the remote Fernbridge (1911) in California was replaced as the longest concrete road bridge by the Albertus L. Meyers Bridge ( Eighth Street Bridge ) (1913) in Allentown , Pennsylvania. At the same time , the Colorado Street Bridge (1913), a series of filigree Art Deco arches, was inaugurated in Pasadena , California . A little later , the Detroit – Superior Bridge (1917), the longest double-decker bridge of its time , was built in Cleveland , Ohio .
Eugène Freyssinet built the Pont du Veurdre (1910), the Pont Boutiron (1913) and the Pont de Châtel-de-Neuvre (1923, after an interruption due to the war), where he made his first experiences with the then largely unknown creep and shrinkage of concrete . The test arch he initially made with a tension rod made of concrete with pre-tensioned wires is regarded as the forerunner of prestressed concrete .
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Two large arch bridges, the Bremgarten railway bridge (1912) and the Halen bridge (1913), were built in Switzerland . Only a little later, the Rhaetian Railway completed the Langwieser Viaduct (1914) and the Gründjitobel Viaduct (1914) on the route to Arosa , which look similar but differ in terms of construction. The Langwieser Viaduct is an integral, elastic construction with two narrow arched ribs, the Gründjitobel Viaduct has a massive main arch in the tradition of Robert Maillart.
After the First World War , the Franklin Avenue Bridge (1923) was built in Minneapolis , MN, with a 122 wide arch in melan construction. At the same time Freyssinet built the Pont de Saint-Pierre-du-Vauvray (1923) with concrete arches made of box girders and at that time the largest span. He himself set the record a little later with the Pont de Plougastel (1930) (later Pont Albert-Louppe), for whose three arches he built the largest 160 m long falsework that had been built to date and had all three arches floated in one after the other . The Royal Tweed Bridge (1928) became England's longest concrete arch bridge. In Paris, Albert Caquot solved the task with the unusual reinforced concrete lattice girders of the Pont La Fayette (1928) of inserting the bridge into the existing development of the street that sloped over the tracks of the Gare de l'Est and at the same time into the narrow space between the tracks .
The industrial bridge Ivry-Charenton (1930) with a half-timbered - Gerber support structure is not considered beautiful, but spans 135 m. At the Lorraine Bridge (1930) in Bern , Robert Maillart built the central arch from prefabricated boxes made of unreinforced concrete. The first cantilever concrete bridge was the Ponte Emílio Baumgart (1930) in Brazil . Alexandre Sarrasin built the Pont de Gueuroz (1934), a 99 m wide arch bridge at a height of 187 m above the Gorge du Trient, which for 29 years was the highest road bridge in Europe. Your concrete was compacted for the first time with an internal vibrator .
In the USA, the Pennsylvania Railroad replaced older iron truss bridges initially with stone bridges, now with reinforced concrete arch bridges, such as B. the Cumberland Valley Railroad Bridge (1916) or the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Bridge (1924). Bridges with two or more arched ribs and elevated deck slabs were often built. The Columbia – Wrightsville Bridge (1930) in Pennsylvania with 28 arches, the Rogue River Bridge (1931) in Oregon , which leads US Highway 101 with seven arches over the river of the same name, the George Westinghouse Bridge (1932) near Pittsburgh , PA, with a 140 m wide arch and the Bixby Creek Bridge (1932) and the Rocky Creek Bridge (1932) in Big Sur , California, serve as examples.
In Europe, the Tranebergsbron (1934) was built in Stockholm , at that time the longest concrete arch bridge in the world, a record that was exceeded just a few years later by the Sandöbron (1943) with a span of 264 m.
In Koblenz , the second Moselle bridge planned by Franz Dischinger was completed in 1934, a three-hinged arch bridge made of reinforced concrete, which was one of the most exciting concrete arch bridges in Germany, but like almost all larger bridges was blown up shortly before the end of the Second World War . The same fate had the four arches of the Danube bridge Leipheim (1937), on the design of which Paul Bonatz had a decisive influence.
The Pont de Villeneuve-le-Roi (1939) over the Seine and the second Waterloo Bridge (1945) in London were built as wide-span, haunched girder bridges . Also during the war that destroyed was Viaduct Longeray with three hollow box - parables rebuilt.
After the Second World War , the Viaduc de la Méditerranée (1950), a railway bridge crossing the Rhône south of Lyon, was rebuilt as an arch bridge with a span of 124 m. At that time it was considered the widest span of all railway bridges with a concrete arch with a suspended lane. Albert Caquot built the Pont de Bezons (1953), a six-lane girder bridge, near Paris .
A little later, Eugène Freyssinet and his then colleague Jean Muller designed the three Caracas - La Guaira (1953) motorway bridges in Venezuela , built by the French company Campenon Bernard , for which Freyssinet further developed the method he first used at the Orly airship hangars , initially only the lower segments the large reinforced concrete arch ribs on falsework to concrete, which differ only on the fighters abstützten and were tired of the side bridge piers. The falsework of the missing center pieces was made on the ground and then lifted to their intended position.
Riccardo Morandi had the two halves of the three-hinged arch of the Ponte Morandi (1955) in Tuscany concreted in an approximately vertical position on the transom foundations and then lowered onto a temporary tower in the middle of the bridge. In the case of the much larger Storms River Bridge (Paul Sauer Bridge) (1956) in South Africa , he repeated the procedure, but dispensed with the temporary tower in the middle of the bridge. Thirty years later, the Argentobel Bridge (1986) near Lindau was built in a similar way. The process is now widely used in China .
The Blombachtalbrücke (1959) near Wuppertal designed by Hellmut Homberg was for a long time the reinforced concrete arch bridge with the largest span (150 m) in Germany. Riccardo Morandi's Ponte Bisantis (1962) in Catanzaro is still the largest arch bridge in Italy with a span of 231 m. Shortly afterwards, the Ponte da Arrábida (1963) was opened by Edgar Cardoso in Porto with a span of 270 m.
The Gladesville Bridge (1964) in Sydney was the record holder for concrete arch bridges for 16 years with a span of 305 m. Its four arched ribs were built from hollow pre-stressed concrete blocks.
Other large arch bridges of this time are the Friendship Bridge (1965) between Paraguay and Brazil , the Kurabrücke Šibenik (1966), the Lingenau High Bridge (1968) and the Paški most (1968) on the Croatian island of Pag .
The Pfaffenberg Bridge (1971) on the Tauern Railway had Europe's largest concrete arch of all railway bridges at 200 m. It was made on a cantilevered archery frame type Cruciani.
With the Ponte Musmeci (1975) in Potenza , a bridge in shell construction was created.
It was not until the Krk Bridge (1980), the arch of which was made from prefabricated box segments in a free porch with an auxiliary guy, that set a new record with a span of 390 m (or 416 m from the underwater foundations).
In China , CFST bridges have been built frequently and in different variations since 1990 . At the Wanxian Bridge (1997) over the Yangtze River , a CFST arch served as a framework and formwork girder for the reinforced concrete arch bridge with a span of 420 m.
In Europe, other important arch bridges were built with the Kylltal Bridge (1999), the Wilde Gera Viaduct (2000), the Ponte do Infante (2002), the Krka Bridge (2004) and the Svinesund Bridge (2005). The Mike O'Callaghan-Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge (2010), better known as the Hoover Dam Bypass Bridge , became the largest-span concrete bridge in the United States. In China , CFST bridges have been built frequently and in different variations since 1990 . At the Wanxian Bridge (1997) over the Yangtze River , a CFST arch served as a framework and formwork girder for the reinforced concrete arch bridge with a span of 420 m.
The Froschgrundsee Viaduct (2011), the Grümpental Bridge (2011) and the Almonte Railway Bridge (2016) became Europe's largest concrete railway bridges. The Qinglong Railway Bridge (2016) in China, a 445 m wide arch bridge with CFST framework, is currently the largest concrete arch railway bridge in the world.
Prestressed concrete bridges
Eugène Freyssinet and Franz Dischinger laid the foundations for the use of prestressed concrete in bridge construction over many years of preparatory work. A high pre-tensioning of the concrete, which has sufficient pre-tensioning force even after its shortening due to creep and shrinkage , allows smaller cross-sectional dimensions. The associated savings in dead weight make larger spans possible.
In 1928 Freyssinet registered the basic patent for prestressed concrete with composite in the prestressed bed and in 1936 built a small bridge made of prefabricated prestressed concrete girders for Campenon Bernard in Algeria. Franz Dischinger designed the Aue station bridge, completed in 1937 , for Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG , the first prestressed concrete bridge with external prestressing. The Neue Baugesellschaft Wayss & Freytag , which had acquired a license from Freyssinet, built the first German prestressed concrete bridge in 1938 with an immediate bond, the Weg Hesseler overpass .
Freyssinet's Pont de Luzancy and its five other Marne bridges formed the beginning of many prestressed concrete bridges prefabricated outside the construction site.
After the Second World War , the countless destroyed bridges had to be rebuilt. There was therefore great interest in a quick and inexpensive construction method. The reduction of the scarce reinforcing steel ensured the success of the prestressed concrete bridges.
The Sclayn bridge over the Meuse in Belgium was rebuilt in 1949 as the first prestressed concrete bridge with a continuous girder using a system of external prestressing designed by Gustave Magnel .
Fritz Leonhardt and Willi Baur developed their Baur – Leonhardt method from 1949 , in which strands were anchored and tensioned in pairs in loops at the ends of the superstructure. The Elzbrücke Emmendingen (1949), the Böckinger Brücke (with Willy Stöhr) and the railway bridge over the Neckar Canal (1950) in Heilbronn as the first large railway bridge made of prestressed concrete were early examples.
From 1949 Ulrich Finsterwalder developed the Dywidag tensioning method with individual rods that are laid in a duct and their threads can be extended or directly anchored using socket connections and thus used to produce prestressed concrete with a subsequent bond. Unlike Freyssinet, Finsterwalder chose the limited preload , which over time became established worldwide. In 1953 it was officially approved in Germany.
They quickly realized that the tightening process was likely to bridges cantilever produce in sections of about 4 m in length. The Lahn Bridge in Balduinstein , built in 1951 based on a design by Finsterwalder, was the first prestressed concrete bridge to be built using cantilever.
Leonhardt's railway bridge over the Kocher in Kochendorf (1952), the Rosenstein Bridge (1952) and the Donautal Bridge Untermarchtal (1953) were examples of multi-span bridges made according to the Baur – Leonhardt method .
In 1953 Fritz Leonhardt's treatise Prestressed Concrete for Practice was published , which became extremely important in the non-French-speaking countries.
From 1952 to 1955, the La Voulte railway bridge over the Rhône was built according to plans by Nicolas Esquillan , the first French railway bridge made of prestressed concrete. His Viaduc de Moret-sur-Loing (1956) was probably the first prestressed concrete bridge built consistently from prefabricated parts .
In the USA , the first bridge of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway was built from pre-stressed concrete, at that time the longest bridge in the world. Jean Muller , who was head of Eugène Freyssinet's New York office at the time, was involved in the planning .
With the Weinland Bridge, opened in 1958, the BBRV clamping system developed by Max Birkenmaier , Antonio Brandestini and Mirko Roš since 1948 and 1950 with the metallurgist Kurt Vogt in Switzerland and marketed by the Stahlton company achieved the breakthrough.
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During the construction of the Pont de Savines (1960), which leads over a not yet filled reservoir , Finsterwalder's idea of constructing the superstructure in the form of a balance beam symmetrically on both sides of the pillar using a cantilever was first carried out on a series of 12 piers.
With the Mangfall Bridge (1960), Finsterwalder showed that a half-timbered box girder bridge in prestressed concrete can also be erected in cantilevered form.
In Brazil, Sergio Marqués de Souza built the Ponte Rodoviária do Estreito (1960) in the tradition of the Ponte Emílio Baumgart cantilevered over the Rio Tocantins . With 140 m it had the largest span in the world until the opening of the Bendorfer Rhine Bridge .
Numerous cantilever bridges were built using the Dywidag post-tensioning system , including abroad.
But soon every well-known bridge construction company had developed its own tensioning system.
The Unkelstein Bridge (1957) was the first of countless long elevated roads . The Kettiger slope bridge , built by Strabag between 1959 and 1961 , was the first to have a long prestressed concrete bridge with an advancing arm, in which, as in cantilevered construction, short sections did not have to be concreted, but an entire field could be concreted and pre-tensioned and the advance always in one direction and could walk unhindered over the pillars and supports. In the not far away Krahnenberg Bridge , planned by Hans Wittfoht and Polensky & Zöllner from 1961 to 1964 , the construction was further developed into a single-phase telescopic scaffold without special front girders, which served as a model for numerous other variants.
The General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge (1962) planned by Riccardo Morandi across Lake Maracaibo was the first cable-stayed bridge made of concrete with a girder made of prestressed concrete hollow boxes.
In Toulouse , a trapezoidal frame bridge was built according to Freyssinet's design, the Pont Saint-Michel (1962).
The Gladesville Bridge (1964) in Sydney , the largest concrete arch bridge at the time, was assembled from hollow pre-stressed concrete blocks.
The 142 m high and 1042 m long Alnöbron (1964) in the province of Västernorrlands län was the longest bridge in Sweden .
The bridge over the Río Caroní (1964) in Venezuela designed by Fritz Leonhardt was the first prestressed concrete bridge to be built using the incremental launching method . The advanced method was first used in Europe for the Wildbichler Bridge (1969) over the Inn and for the Taubertal Bridge (1973).
In 1965, the Bendorfer Rhine Bridge, a prestressed concrete girder bridge with a span of 208 m in cantilever construction, was the largest in the world at the time.
In Russia , precast concrete bridges began to be built in the early 1960s. Bridges made of prestressed concrete framework in large parts weighing up to 5000 t were prefabricated on land and then floated to their destination . The Saratov Bridge (1965) on the Volga was a short time the longest bridge in Europe, km long until the 5, also made of prefabricated elements built Dutch Zeelandbrug , surpassed (1965 originally called Oosterscheldebrug).
With the Sori Viaduct (1966) and other viaducts (Viadotto Veilino, Bisagno and Nervi) on the Autostrada A12 ( Autostrada Azzurra ) east of Genoa , Silvano Zorzi introduced the Dywidag system in Italy. They were followed in 1969 by the viaducts on the Autostrada A10 ( Autostrada dei Fiori ) (Viadotto Borghetto, Sasso and San Lorenzo).
Jean Muller and the Campenon Bernard company developed precast construction further. With the Pont de Choisy (1965), they built a prestressed hollow box girder bridge over the Seine for the first time using a cantilevered cantilever made of prefabricated segments that were manufactured and bonded using the contact method . The process was further developed and in the following year the Viaduc d'Oléron (1966) with a large front scaffolding ( poutre de lancement ) was built. This laid the foundation for a long development in the construction of prestressed concrete bridges in cantilever construction with prefabricated segments. The Chillon Viaduct (1969) was built a little later using a similar method. The Pont de Noirmoutier (1971), the Rio-Niterói Bridge (1974) and the Pont de l'île de Ré (1988) built a few years later are other well-known examples.
The 539 m long Danube bridge Pfaffenstein (1967) on the A 93 has two superstructures with continuous girders . The Elztalbrücke (1967) designed by Ulrich Finsterwalder and Herbert Schambeck has an expansion joint over the middle of the valley, while the two sections of the carriageway slab are monolithically connected with the mushroom-shaped pillars and the abutments. The Elztal Bridge is seen as the forerunner of the semi-integral bridges. The Dyckerhoff Bridge (1967) is a 96 m spanning pedestrian bridge made for the first time in lightweight concrete .
The Grein Danube Bridge (1967) was the first prestressed concrete bridge in Austria to be cantilevered across the Danube. In 1968 the Luegbrücke , the Obernberg valley crossing and the identically constructed Felperbrücke were opened in the upper section of the Brenner Autobahn .
In Spain, the double-decker bridges Puente de Tajo and Puente Almonte (1968) were built according to a design by Finsterwalder, which at that time held the record for railway bridges made of prestressed concrete with spans of 85 m . The Siegtalbrücke (1969) was the highest motorway viaduct at almost 106 m . The Carolabrücke (1971) in Dresden was the prestressed concrete bridge with the largest span in the GDR . In 1972 the A22 autostrada was completed, the Italian part of the Brenner motorway with 30 km of bridges to Modena , including the Gossensaß viaduct .
The Öland Bridge (1972) was in Europe and is still Sweden's longest bridge. Japan had already started in 1958 to build prestressed concrete bridges using the Dywidag method. The Urado Bridge (1972) with a span of 230 m and the Hamana Bridge (1976 ) with a span of 240 m are examples of large Japanese prestressed concrete box girder bridges. The Beška Bridge was built in Serbia (1975), at that time the longest of the Danube bridges , which leads the Autoput A1 over the Danube and which was doubled in 2011 by a second bridge. The first prestressed concrete bridge in the USA was the Pine Valley Creek Bridge (1975) in California.
The Gennevilliers motorway bridge (1976) near Paris was the largest cantilevered concrete bridge in France at the time.
The 1521 m long Ahr valley bridge (1976) of the A 61 has continuous beams with 11 spans each and an expansion joint on a separating pillar in the middle of the valley.
The Koror – Babeldaob Bridge (1978) in Palau in the South Pacific was the largest prestressed concrete bridge in the world. In 1996 it collapsed for reasons that were not clear.
The 185 m high Kochertal bridge (1979) of the A 6 is the highest valley bridge in Germany; its 178 m high bridge piers were the highest in the world until they were replaced by the Viaduc de Millau in 2004 .
By Christian Menn designed Ganter (1980) on the Simplon road is considered the first Extradosed bridge . The Beckenried Lehnen Viaduct on Lake Lucerne , which opened in the same year, was the longest viaduct in Switzerland until the opening of the Viaduc d'Yverdon (1984) . The Biaschina Viaduct (1983) in Ticino is the highest bridge on Autobahn 2 .
In India, the 5.6 km long Mahatma Gandhi Setu over the Ganges was completed in 1982 after ten years of construction . The Sam Houston Ship Channel Bridge was opened in Texas (1982). In 1985 the Puente Internacional Tancredo Neves between Brazil and Argentina went into operation.
The bridges on the high-speed line Hanover – Würzburg built in the mid-1980s have a total length of 30 km. Among them, the Maintalbrücke Gemünden (1984) was considered the most long- span prestressed concrete railway bridge in the world when it opened and still has the largest span of a prestressed concrete girder bridge for railway overpasses in Germany. The highest bridge at 95 m is the Rombachtalbrücke (1986). At the Maintalbrücke Veitshöchheim (1987) a new world record was set for a one-sided incremental launching process with a pushed length of 1262.8 m.
The Gateway Bridge (1986) near Brisbane , Australia was the largest of its kind for over 15 years with a span of 260 m.
The Schottwien valley crossing (1989) became an important part of the new Semmering expressway .
In Porto , Edgar Cardoso created the Ponte de São João railway bridge (1991), a prestressed concrete frame bridge that has also received much architectural attention due to its clear lines. In Norway, the Nye Varoddbrua (1994) set the record for the Gateway Bridge with a span of 260 m. The Skye Bridge has been connecting an island in the Inner Hebrides with the Scottish mainland since 1995 .
The 12.9 km long Confederation Bridge (1997) between Prince Edward Island and the Canadian mainland was completely prefabricated on land and floated in with a floating crane. The 6.6 km long western part of the Storebæltsbroen (Bridge over the Great Belt) (1997/1998) also consists of prefabricated parts that were lifted onto the piers by a floating crane.
The 4.8 km long Bangabandhu Bridge (1998) was founded with 83 m long steel pipes in the bed of the Jamuna in Bangladesh .
With the Sunniberg Bridge (1998), Christian Menn and Dialma Jakob Bänziger created a highly regarded extradosed bridge.
The Raftsundbrua (1998) between two Lofoten Islands and the Sundøybrua (2003) are examples of the extensive construction of bridges and roads in Norway . With spans of 298 m, they occupy the second place of all prestressed concrete bridges worldwide. Only the Stolmabrua (1998) is a little further with 301 m span. Your box girder has a 184 m long middle section made of lightweight concrete . The second Shibanpo-Yangtze Bridge (2006) currently has the largest span with 330 m, but its box girder contains a 108 m long steel middle section.
In 2002, the Pierre-Pflimlin Bridge was opened over the Rhine near Strasbourg, the second new Rhine bridge on the German-French border, which was built for national road traffic after the Second World War and had no predecessor.
The third Benicia – Martinez Bridge (2007) in the San Francisco Bay Area is an example of the US prestressed concrete bridges that are still rare. The Puente San Marcos (2013) with the second highest pillar in the world is an example of the numerous Mexican prestressed concrete bridges.
The vast majority of prestressed concrete and many other large bridges were built in China at the beginning of this century . The longest bridge in the world, the Danyang – Kunshan Great Bridge , built between 2010 and 2011 on the Beijing – Shanghai high-speed line, is just one example.
Chain bridges, suspension bridges
Chain bridges
The chain bridges built in Tibet and Bhutan in the 15th century and at the latest since the early 18th century in China in the mountain valleys of Sichuan and Yunnan remained largely unknown in the western world.
In Europe, after the Winch Bridge , a narrow pedestrian bridge for English miners, only a pipe bridge born of necessity to supply water to the city of Weilburg an der Lahn and two swaying footbridges in parks were built in the 18th century .
In the USA , James Finley built the Jacob's Creek Bridge in 1801, the first chain suspension bridge that could be used by vehicles. A little later he built the much larger chain bridge at Falls of Schuylkill and a number of similar bridges. However, it could not prevail against the cheaper wooden truss bridges and ultimately had no influence on the development.
In Britain , advances in metallurgy and improvements in the eye rods used as chain links led to the dawn of the chain bridge era. In 1819, Samuel Brown began building the Union Bridge , the first chain bridge in Europe that could be used by wagons. In the same year, Thomas Telford began construction of the Menai Bridge from Wales to Anglesey , which was completed in 1926 and which, with a span of 176 m and a clearance of 30 m, surpassed all previous bridges of this type of construction. The Conwy Suspension Bridge, also built by Telford, followed shortly afterwards .
In Germany, the Kettensteg in Nuremberg was opened in 1824 , the oldest chain bridge on the European continent. A little later, the Rotunda Bridge over the Danube Canal in Vienna was released for use by pedestrians and horses.
This construction method had achieved its breakthrough in most European countries. A number of other chain bridges were built, such as B. the Egyptian Bridge in Saint Petersburg , the Chain Bridge in Malapane in Silesia , or the Hammersmith Bridge , built by William Tierney Clark in London , with the next record span of 210 m.
Other significant bridges include the Széchenyi Chain Bridge , also opened in 1849 by William Tierney Clark, over the Danube in Budapest with a span of 202 m, the Empress Elisabeth Bridge over the Elbe in Tetschen (Děčín) in today's Czech Republic and the Nicholas Chain Bridge in Kiev , which crossed the Dnepr in four consecutive fields with spans of 143 m each and a total length of 776 m.
The chain bridge in Mülheim an der Ruhr was built between 1842 and 1844 (and replaced by a larger bridge in 1909).
The connecting railway bridge over the Vienna Danube Canal, put into operation in 1860, was the first railway bridge in the form of a "fake", back-anchored chain bridge.
The construction of the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol , begun in 1831 by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was completed in 1864 after various difficulties. It has a span of 214 m.
In 1868, the Franz Joseph Bridge / Eliščin most (Elisen Bridge) , planned according to the system of Rowland Mason Ordish , was opened in Prague , a chain bridge with inclined chains in the manner of the later cable-stayed bridges . The Albert Bridge in London was then built according to the same system, but it was not very successful and had to be improved several times.
With the construction of the Tower Bridge in London inaugurated in 1894 , a combined suspension and bascule bridge that is probably unique in this form, and the Elizabeth Bridge in Budapest, which opened in 1903 , the era of chain bridges had probably reached its climax.
From the later period, the Deutz suspension bridge , a back-anchored chain bridge opened in 1915, and the also anchored Three Sisters in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania, which were built over the Allegheny River in 1924–1928, should be mentioned in particular . The Hercílio Luz Bridge in Brazil , completed in 1926, has the largest span of all chain bridges in the world at 339.5 m. The last large chain bridges were probably the Vienna Reichsbrücke, opened in 1937, and the Crimean Bridge in Moscow, completed in 1938 .
Wire rope suspension bridges
Beginnings in France and Switzerland
France was long cut off from advances in the manufacture and manufacture of iron in Great Britain due to the continental lock at the beginning of the 19th century . Since wire ropes can compensate for the different qualities of the individual wires, the development in the French-speaking area, especially under the influence of Marc Seguin , has been concentrated on wire rope suspension bridges from the beginning.
The 82-meter-long Passerelle de Saint-Antoine , built by Guillaume-Henri Dufour in Geneva in 1823 based on ideas from Marc Seguin , is considered to be the world's first permanent wire rope suspension bridge. Marc Seguin opened the bridge over the Rhone in Tournon-sur-Rhône , now known as Passerelle Marc Seguin, in 1825 , the first passable wire rope suspension bridge. Over the next forty years, he and his company Marc Seguin et Freres built over sixty suspension bridges across France. Competitive companies like Société Bayard de la Vingtrie were similarly productive. Examples are the Cubzac suspension bridge, completed in 1833, which was probably the largest and longest suspension bridge in its time, and the Châteauneuf-sur-Loire , Châtillon-sur-Loire or Bonny-sur-Loire bridges . Demand was high, as suspension bridges could cross wide rivers at a fraction of the cost of a traditional multi-stone arch bridge. In places where it was previously impossible to build piers in the river bed because of the subsoil conditions or the current, the river could now be crossed on a bridge for the first time, such as the Pont de La Roche-Bernard in the Morbihan department over the Vilaine . The 194 m long Pont de la Caille on the road from Geneva to Grenoble, stretched over a gorge at a height of 147 m, would not have been conceivable shortly before.
The increase in strength of the wires due to the pulling during manufacture enabled more powerful suspension cables than when using suspension chains. The Zähringer Bridge in Freiburg im Üechtland ( Le Grand Pont Suspendu ) was the world record holder from 1835 with a span of 273 meters. Their suspension ropes consisted of 1056 individual wires, each three millimeters in diameter. The individual wires were arranged parallel to each other, as the twisted (twisted) wire rope was not invented until 1834 by Oberbergrat Julius Albert .
This construction method was retained for larger suspension bridges, the suspension cables of which were so large and heavy that they could only be produced on the construction site using the air-jet spinning process, which was originally invented by the French Louis-Joseph Vicat and introduced in 1830. John Roebling later developed this process further in the USA, so that suspension ropes could be manufactured over large spans directly at the place of use in a comparatively short time and at affordable costs.
Initially, a number of collapses as a result of storms were accepted. However, when on April 16, 1850 the suspension ropes of the Angers suspension bridge (Pont de la Basse-Chaîne) were torn from their anchorages and a total of 226 people died in this accident, the public attitude turned. The storm that destroyed the bridge deck of the Pont de La Roche-Bernard on October 26, 1852, encouraged the public to reject further suspension bridges. As a result, hardly any suspension bridges were built in France for the next forty years, while at around the same time John Roebling was showing the solution to the problem in the USA.
In the French-speaking countries, suspension bridges were only built again at the end of the 19th century, mainly by Ferdinand Arnodin , and even more older bridges were modernized according to his ideas. Outwardly visible was the stiffening combination of fan-shaped stay cables on the sections of the roadway girders near the pylons with conventional suspension cables and hangers in the middle third and the use of hangers made of steel rods with forged ends instead of the usual ropes. The Pont Sidi M'Cid in Constantine , Algeria , completed in 1912 , was the highest bridge in the world at the time.
Development in the USA
The Wheeling Suspension Bridge over the Ohio River , completed in 1849, was the first large suspension bridge with a span of over 300 m, but was badly damaged by a storm in 1854.
John August Roebling then set the standard. His Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge , built from 1851 to 1855 with a span of 251 m, was the first permanent bridge over the Niagara River and the first suspension bridge also for railways. It had massive masonry pylons, two carrying ropes each with different sags and a roadway girder made of lattice girders similar to a box girder , which was secured against vibrations by additional stay cables and bracing downwards. His Cincinnati – Covington Bridge opened in 1866 with a span of 322 m (later called John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge ) and the Brooklyn Bridge, completed by his son Washington in 1883, with a span of 486 m, were built according to similar principles.
The first bridge made entirely of steel was the Williamsburg Bridge, opened in 1903, with a span of 488 m, which also dispensed with the stay cables.
With the third suspension bridge over the East River , the Manhattan Bridge planned by Leon S. Moisseiff and completed in 1909, the development of ever lighter and larger bridges began, such as the Bear Mountain Bridge , the Benjamin Franklin Bridge and the Ambassador Bridge . In 1929, the Royal Gorge Bridge was probably the first suspension bridge built for tourist purposes, which became known because it crossed a gorge in Colorado at a height of 291 m and held the title of tallest bridge in the world until 2001.
Othmar Ammanns opened the George Washington Bridge in 1931 with a span of 1067 m and the Golden Gate Bridge , built by Joseph B. Strauss and opened in 1937, with a span of 1280 m set new standards. The Lions Gate Bridge in Vancouver became the longest suspension bridge outside the United States with a span of 472 m in 1938 and retained this title until the Pont de Tancarville in France opened in 1959 .
The shortage of money during the Great Depression accelerated the trend towards very slim and therefore cheap suspension bridges made possible by new calculation methods and new construction methods. David B. Steinman was able to dampen completely unexpected vibrations on the Thousand Islands Bridge, which was completed in 1938, and the Deer Isle Bridge, which was built almost at the same time, by means of additional tension cables and struts.
In the case of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge , an extremely slim and lightweight bridge planned by Leon S. Moisseiff, which at that time had the third largest span of all suspension bridges at 853 m, far more than hurricane-like storms had been taken as a basis. Nevertheless, on November 7, 1940, only four months after its opening, in a purely stormy wind, vibrations and twisting that became stronger and stronger unexpectedly occurred, which led to the destruction of the bridge. Wind was only considered as a static load; its aerodynamic effects on bridges were still unknown at the time. It took many years, many wind tunnel tests and calculations, until the dynamic effects of wind on bridge structures were understood to some extent.
As a reaction to the accident, Ammann had to subsequently stiffen his also very slender Bronx-Whitestone Bridge to reassure the ( toll-paying ) motorists. The new construction of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, completed in 1950, and above all by David B. Steinman's Mackinac Bridge , which opened in 1957, were provided with high and already optically solid-looking lattice girders to prevent vibrations. Othmar Ammann also used high and stiff trusses for the Throgs Neck Bridge (1961); with the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge (1964) the problem did not arise because of the two-story construction.
American and European construction methods
The knowledge gained from the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge led to two different types of construction, also known as American and European construction methods.
Truss
With the American construction method, large trusses were and continue to be used to stiffen the road girder. Care is taken to ensure that they have the lowest possible wind resistance despite their size. Large American- style suspension bridges are, for example, the Pont de Tancarville (1959) near Le Havre , the Forth Road Bridge (1964) near Edinburgh , the Emmerich Rhine Bridge (1965), the Pont Pierre-Laporte (1970) in Québec, the Kammon- Bridge (1973) in Japan and the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge (1998), the longest of all suspension bridges to date, which has a 14 m high stiffening beam. The bridge, which was the highest above the valley floor until 2016, the Siduhe Bridge (2009) in the Chinese province of Hubei , also has a truss.
The Ponte 25 de Abril (1966) in Lisbon , the Minami-Bisan-Seto Bridge (1988) in the Seto-Ōhashi Bridge Combination in Japan and the Tsing Ma Bridge (1997) in Hong Kong are double-deck railroad and road bridges and therefore inevitably have a high truss.
Box girder
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Fritz Leonhardt had already designed the first Rhine bridge between Cologne and Rodenkirchen , built between 1938 and 1941, with a flat, full-walled stiffening beam. In 1953 he drew the conclusion from the Tacoma accident that it would be better to avoid damaging wind currents by means of a streamlined design of the bridge deck, rather than counteracting the vibrations with large trusses.
Freeman Fox & Partners took up the idea and were the first to use a bridge deck made of a flat steel box girder, the profile of which was determined in wind tunnel tests, for the Severn Bridge, which was built from 1961 to 1966 .
On the basis of Leonhardt's advice, the construction of Ny Lillebæltsbro, built between 1965 and 1970 over the Little Belt in Denmark, was also converted to box girder construction in 1964 .
Freeman Fox and Partners also designed the first Bosphorus Bridge (1973) and the Humber Bridge (1981) as well as the second bridge over the Bosphorus, the Fatih-Sultan-Mehmet Bridge (1988) with flat, aerodynamically optimized box girder profiles and thus established them this construction.
Other suspension bridges with box girders are the Högakustenbrücke (1997) in Sweden and the Jiangyin Bridge (1997) over the Yangtze River in China . The second longest suspension bridge to date, the Xihoumen Bridge (2008), also has a flat hollow box girder.
Cable-stayed bridges
precursor
In the 19th century there were various forerunners of modern cable-stayed bridges. Gottfried Bandhauer , the master builder of the Duchy of Anhalt-Köthen built the Saale bridge near Nienburg , which was inaugurated in 1825, but which collapsed a few months later due to the vibrations caused by people dancing.
John August Roebling stiffened his suspension bridges in the USA with stay cables. In France, Ferdinand Arnodin developed a mixed system of stay cables and suspension cables with hangers, which was installed in numerous bridges, such as the Pont de l'Abîme (1887) or the Pont Sidi M'Cid (1912) in Constantine (Algeria) . At the end of the 19th century, Albert Gisclard built bridges with a system of crossing stay cables that reached into the other half of the bridge, the most famous being the Pont de Cassagne railway bridge (1908). Leinekugel Le Cocq continued Gisclard's ideas and converted the old suspension bridge Pont de Lézardrieux over the Trieux in Brittany into a cable-stayed bridge in 1925. The so-called suspension bridge of Deir ez-Zor in Syria is likely to have been the last bridge of this type.
Modern cable-stayed bridges
In treatises published by Franz Dischinger in 1949, the theoretical foundations for the construction of modern cable-stayed bridges were laid. With ropes made of high-strength wires, higher tensions and thus stiff bridges were now possible.
Albert Caquot possibly also built the Donzère-Mondragon cable-stayed bridge with a bridge deck and pylons made of reinforced concrete for the Canal de Donzère-Mondragon project . It was completed in 1952, making it the first modern cable-stayed bridge, but it had little influence on further development.
In 1952, a group of engineers led by Fritz Leonhardt was commissioned to design the north bridge in Düsseldorf , which later became the Theodor Heuss Bridge . Leonhardt took up Dischinger's suggestions and designed a cable-stayed bridge that corresponded to the design ideas of the architect Friedrich Tamms , head of the city planning office, who wanted a harp-shaped cable system with parallel cables that could not visually overlap even when viewed from an angle.
In the meantime, the Strömsundsbron in Sweden designed by Franz Dischinger had been completed in 1955 . It is commonly referred to as the world's first large cable-stayed bridge.
The Theodor Heuss Bridge was built later and was completed in 1957. It was the first cable-stayed bridge in Germany. Shortly thereafter, Tamms commissioned Fritz Leonhardt to plan the Rheinkniebrücke and Hans Grassl to plan the Oberkasseler Brücke . The three bridges were characterized by the same style elements - a flat steel bridge deck, slender vertical pylons and a few, harp-shaped stay cables - and thus became the Düsseldorf bridge family , even if the Rheinknie Bridge was not made until 1969 and the Oberkassel Bridge was provisional in 1973 and finally after its relocation were only opened to traffic in 1976. You have had a major impact on the development of cable-stayed bridges worldwide for many years.
The bridge type spread quickly. At Expo 58 he became known to a wide audience thanks to the walkway to the pavilions designed by Egon Eiermann and Sep Ruf . The Severinsbrücke with the first A-shaped pylon was opened in Cologne in 1959 . In 1961, the Leonhardt & Andrä office on Schillersteg presented a sloping pylon that was anchored back to the ground for the first time. In 1962, the Norderelbbrücke was completed in Hamburg as the first pure motorway bridge and the first large mid-level cable-stayed bridge. Between 1959 and 1962 the bridge designed by Riccardo Morandi was built over Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela, the first of a long series of cable-stayed bridges with pylons and bridge decks made of concrete. In 1964, the George Street Bridge in Newport , South Wales, was the first modern cable-stayed bridge in Great Britain and the following year with the largely overlooked Pont de Saint-Florent-le-Vieil, the first steel bridge in France.
With the Friedrich-Ebert-Brücke (Bonn) in Bonn and the Rees-Kalkar Rhine bridge, also completed in 1967, Helmut Homberg built cable-stayed bridges with a large number of ropes for the first time, which was only possible through the introduction of powerful IT systems .
Examples of further development
Improvements in the calculation methods and materials as well as the enormous increase in the performance of the EDP systems led to a diversification of the cable-stayed bridges in a wide variety of types and variants in a short time. The Köhlbrand Bridge (1974) in the Port of Hamburg, with its A-pylons, the stems of which encompass the deck girder, was the model for a large number of similar pylons or those derived from it. The Raiffeisen bridge (1978) over the Rhine in Neuwied has an A-pylon in the longitudinal direction of the bridge, the airport bridge (2002) in the Ilverich crossing of the Rhine has pylons in the form of triangles standing on top. The Fleher Bridge (1979) over the Rhine in Düsseldorf has the highest pylon and with 368 m the longest span of the cable-stayed bridges in Germany. The stay cables of the Obere Argen viaduct (1990) on the A96 near Wangen are continued under the carriageway girder as trusses with three air supports. The Storchenbrücke (1996) in Winterthur is the first bridge with stay cables made of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) .
Inclined pylons
A number of bridges have inclined pylons, as the outer stay cables are not attached to the deck but anchored in the ground. Examples are the Viadotto Ansa del Tevere (1967) in Rome, the Batman Bridge (1968) in Tasmania, which is also the oldest cable-stayed bridge in Australia, the New Danube Bridge (1972) in Bratislava with a tower restaurant on the pylon, the Carpineto Bridge ( 1977) in southern Italy, the Ponte all'Indiano (1978) in Florence, the Rhine Bridge N4 (1995) near Schaffhausen and the Erasmus Bridge (1996) in Rotterdam.
A special feature are the bridges by Santiago Calatrava , in which the inclined pylon itself forms the counterweight to the stay cables, as in the Puente del Alamillo (1992) in Seville.
In other bridges, the inclined pylons are due to the curved roadway, such as the Abdoun Bridge (2006) in Amman, the only cable-stayed bridge in Jordan, or the Pont de Térénez (2011) in Brittany .
Concrete roadway girders
Examples of cable-stayed bridges with concrete carriageway girders are the bridge over the Wadi al-Kuf (1971), the West Works Bridge (Höchst) (1972) over the Main, the first cable-stayed bridge for road and rail traffic, the Puente General Manuel Belgrano (Puente Chaco –Corrientes) (1973) over the Río Paraná , the Puente Pumarejo (1974) in Barranquilla , Colombia, the Prince Willem Alexander Bridge (1974) over the Waal near Tiel in the Netherlands, the Brotonne Bridge (1977) over the Seine , the Danube Bridge Metten (1981) near Deggendorf, the Most Slobode or ( Liberty Bridge ) (1981) in Novi Sad , Serbia, the Sunshine Skyway Bridge (1987) over Tampa Bay in Florida, the Puente Ingeniero Carlos Fernández Casado (1983 ) via Barrios de Luna reservoir in northern Spain with a span of 440 m and the Skarnsundbrua (1991) in Norway with the largest span of 530 m in this group currently (2013). The comparatively small Rhine bridge Diepoldsau (1985) over the Alpine Rhine shows that cable-stayed bridges are also possible with road girders made of a concrete slab only 55 cm thick.
Carriageway girders made of steel and concrete composite
The first cable-stayed bridge with a girder made of a steel and concrete composite was the Second Hooghly Bridge (1972–1992) in Calcutta , followed by the two bridges that were completed earlier, the Ponte Edgar Cardoso (1982) in Figueira da Foz in Portugal and the Alex Fraser Bridge (1986) in Greater Vancouver, Canada. The Second Severn Bridge (1996) near Bristol in England and the three-hip Ting Kau Bridge (1998) in Hong Kong are further examples. The Berliner Brücke (2006) in Halle (Saale) was the first composite bridge in Germany. In 2015, the Puente de la Constitución de 1812 was opened in Cádiz with a span of 540 m.
Extradosed bridges
Some cable-stayed bridges are viewed as extradosed bridges , such as the cable-stayed bridge (1975) in Vienna and the Ganter bridge ( 1980) as part of the Simplonpassstrasse and the Sunniberg bridge (1998) near Klosters , both of which were designed by Christian Menn .
Multi-hip cable-stayed bridges
In multi-hip cable-stayed bridges, the effects of the moving loads on the neighboring pylons are limited by various measures. This can be seen, for example, in the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge (1962) over Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela, the Polcevera Viaduct (1967) in Genoa, the Ting Kau Bridge (1998), Hong Kong with four rope levels, the Puente Orinoquia (2006) over the Orinoco and at the Rio-Andirrio Bridge (2004) in Greece, which is the second longest cable-stayed bridge in the world with 4 pylons and a length of 2252 m, and at the Viaduc de Millau (2004) in France, the longest cable-stayed bridge in the world with 7 pylons and 2,460 m.
Largest cable-stayed bridges
The cable-stayed bridges with the largest spans of their time were the Saint-Nazaire Bridge (1975) over the Loire with 404 m, the Pont de Normandie (1994) over the Seine with 856 m, the Tatara Bridge (1999) in Nishiseto, Japan , with 890 m, the Stonecutters Bridge (2009) in Hong Kong, China, with 1018 m and the Sutong Bridge (2008) in Nantong, China, which has the second largest span with 1088 m. The Russky Bridge (2012) in Vladivostok, Russia, has the world's largest span of all cable-stayed bridges at 1104 m.
The Oresund Bridge (2000) between Denmark and Sweden is the longest cable-stayed bridge for combined road and rail traffic. The widest is the Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge (2002) in Boston, USA, with ten lanes and 56 m wide. The Suez Canal Bridge (2001) with a clearance of 70 m is the highest cable-stayed bridge in the world built in flat land and the Baluarte Bridge (2012) in Mexico is the highest cable-stayed bridge in the world at 402.5 m above the valley floor .
Other developments
In 1962, the Puente de las Américas (formerly Thatcher Ferry Bridge) was built as a tannery bridge over the Panama Canal , which, due to its enormous height, enables ocean giants to pass under the bridge.
In 1995, the 508 m long Heringsdorf pier was opened on Usedom and is considered the longest of its kind on the shores of the European continent.
The architect Ben van Berkel built the sensational, 802 m long Erasmus Bridge in Rotterdam from 1994 to 1996 , some of which can be folded, and some of which were planned and constructed asymmetrically as a cable-stayed bridge with an angled pylon. In 1998 the construction of the bridge over the Great Belt between Denmark and Sweden with a span of 1624 m attracted a great deal of attention worldwide. The main opening consists of a reinforced concrete arch with a span of 247 m. The Hangzhou Bay Bridge near the Chinese city of Hangzhou has spanned Hangzhou Bay as a 36 km long structure since 2007, making it the longest overseas bridge in the world.
See also
literature
- Marjorie Nice Boyer: Medieval French Bridges. A history. The Mediaeval Academy of America, Cambridge MA 1976, ISBN 0-910956-58-8 .
- Wolfgang Braunfels : Occidental city architecture. DuMont Schauberg, Cologne 1976.
- Miron Mislin : The built-up bridges of Paris, their architectural and urban development in the 12th – 19th centuries. Th. Diss. Univ. (TH) Stuttgart, 1978.
- Miron Mislin: History of Building Construction and Engineering. An introduction. Werner, Düsseldorf 1988, ISBN 3-8041-2684-7 .
- Miron Mislin: History of Building Construction and Engineering. Vol. 1, Werner, Düsseldorf 1997, ISBN 3-8041-2742-8 .
- Miron Mislin: For Isambard Kingdom Brunel's 200th birthday. in: Steel construction. 75 (2006), no.12.
- Miron Mislin: For the 250th birthday of Thomas Telford. in: Steel construction. 76 (2007), no.12.
- Colin O'Connor: Roman Bridges. Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 .
- Vittorio Galliazzo: I ponti romani. Catalogo generale. Vol. 1, Edizioni Canova, Treviso 1995, ISBN 88-85066-66-6 .
- Wolfgang W. Wurster, Joachim Ganzert: A bridge near Limyra in Lycia. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger , German Archaeological Institute, Berlin 1978, ISSN 0003-8105 , pp. 288-307.
Web links
- Chronology of the art of bridge construction
- Hans Stadler: Bridges. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland .
- Bridges. History of bridge building . In: Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th edition) (English)
Individual evidence
- ↑ Fiona Haughey: The archeology of the Thames (PDF; 4.3 MB)
- ↑ Jan Gerrit Dercksen: The old Assyrian copper trade in Anatolia . Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologische Instituut te Istanbul, Istanbul 1996, p. 11
- ↑ a b Jan Gerrit Dercksen: The old Assyrian copper trade in Anatolia . Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologische Instituut te Istanbul, Istanbul 1996, p. 13
- ↑ For the history of the ship bridges see pontoon bridge .
- ↑ In Assyria and Babylonia since the 9th century BC Chr. (Brockhaus, 15th edition, 1929)
- ↑ Herodotus 4.87
- ↑ Herodotus 4.89
- ↑ Herodotus 7:36
- ↑ Photo: File: Pontmegalithique0002.jpg
- ^ Mycenaean bridge at Kazarma by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture
- ↑ In one of the pyramids of Meroe , at a portal to a pyramid at Jebel Barkal and in a vault in one of the buildings of Amenophis I.
- ^ Pier of Rhodes
- ↑ In the Porta all'Arco in Volterra
- ↑ Wurster & Ganzert (1978), pp. 288-307
- ↑ Galliazzo (1995), p. 92 f. (Fig. 39)
- ↑ Photo: Bridge over the Sebcha Halk El Menzel
- ↑ Photo: Vieux pont de Limay
- ↑ Photo: Ponte Vella, Orense
- ↑ Photo: High Bridge, Lincoln High Street
- ↑ Photo: Pulteney Bridge, Bath
- ↑ Diethard Steinbrecher: History of timber construction using the example of timber bridge construction in America and Europe ; in: Wolfgang Rug (Hrsg.): Timber construction in the inventory - Historic wooden structures: Berlin, Vienna, Zurich 2018
- ↑ Josef Killer: The works of master builders Grubenmann , doctoral thesis ETHZ , Zurich 1942 - available as PDF (27 MB) on [1] , last accessed on June 30, 2019
- ↑ A. Müller, H. Kolb: Grubenmanns bridges. (PDF; 346 kB) Tec21 , 2009, accessed on February 2, 2013 (The statement in the article that only two Grubenmann bridges still exist is incorrect.).
- ↑ General Encyclopedia of Sciences and Arts ; ed. by SG Verl and JG Gruber, Volume 13, Leipzig 1824, p. 160 (article "Bridges # Wooden Bridges": "Of all peoples, however, the Germans have advanced the building of wooden bridges the most" - The following is a list of outstanding bridge structures in Europe with builder names and details)
- ↑ Figure from 1905 available on [2] , last accessed on June 30, 2019
- ↑ see [3] , last accessed on June 30, 2019
- ↑ This fifth rule was e.g. B. described by Hubert Gautier in his long authoritative treatise on the construction of bridges Traité des ponts (Paris, 1728).
- ^ Perronet: Devis des ouvrages à faire pour la construction du pont de Louis XVI , Paris, 1787, and Description des projets et de la construction des ponts de Neuilli, de Mante, d'Orléans, de Louis XVI, ... , Paris, 1788 ; with details from: Jean-Rodolphe Perronet
- ^ Karl-Eugen Kurrer : History of structural engineering. In search of balance , 2., strong ad. Edition, Ernst & Sohn , Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-433-03134-6 .
- ↑ Ernst Werner: The iron bridges, some aspects of their development (PDF; 881 kB) on Icomos .org
- ↑ Louis-Joseph Vicat: News of the observations of a periodic movement of the vaults of the bridge over the Dordogne near Souillac , Journal für die Baukunst, Volume 4, G. Reimer, Berlin, 1831 (digitized on Google books, accessed on March 30, 2012 )
- ↑ Grandes Voûtes , Tôme I – VI, Imprimerie Vve Tardy-Pigelet et fils, Bourges, 1913–1916
- ↑ On fait une voûte d'après les voûtes faites: c'est affaire d'expérience. Avant-Propos ( limited preview in Google Book Search)
- ^ William Humber: A Complete Treatise on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction , pp. 74 f. Lockwood & Co., London 1870
- ↑ Photos in commons: Early iron and steel bridges
- ↑ Historical photo of the cast iron bridge in Łażany on Wratislaviae Amici
- ↑ Roving bridge
- ↑ See Thomas Telford
- ↑ Tom F. Peters: The development of the large bridge construction . 2nd Edition. ETH, Zurich 1980. p. 29
- ↑ Dunlap's Creek Bridge, photo file: Dunlap's Creek Bridge, southern side.jpg
- ↑ For example file: Central Park New York City New York 23 cropped.jpg
- ^ Antoine-Rémy Polonceau: Notice sur le nouveau système de ponts en fonte suivi dans la construction du pont du Carrousel. Carilian-Gœury et V e Dalmont, Paris 1839 ( digitized on Google Books)
- ↑ Georg Reichenbach: Theory of bridge arches and suggestions for iron bridges in any size. Jos. Lindauer, Munich 1811 ( digitized on Google Books)
- ↑ Dee bridge disaster (1847), Wooton bridge collapse (1860), Bull bridge accident (1860) and others. a.
- ^ A b Max Becker: The cast iron bridges of the Baden Railway, in particular the Kinzigbrücke near Offenburg and Elzbrüke near Sexau. Verlag der Georg Holtmann'schen Buchhandlung, Carlsruhe 1847 ( digitized on Google Books)
- ^ William Humber: A Complete Treatise on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction , pp. 79 f. Lockwood & Co., London 1870 ( digitized on Google Books)
- ↑ a b An overview of the development is provided by: Georg Christoph Mehrtens: Weitgespannt Strom- u. Thalbrücken d. Modern times. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung Volume X, No. 35 (from August 30, 1890), pp. 357–360 ( digitized version ); No. 35A (of September 3, 1890), pp. 366-370 ( digitized ); No. 36 (of September 6, 1890), pp. 376-378 ( digitized version ); No. 36A (of September 10, 1890), pp. 383-384 ( digitized version ); No. 37 (of September 13, 1890), pp. 391–392 ( digitized version )
- ^ Smithfield Street Bridge , Library of Congress, Historic American Buildings Survey
- ^ Friedrich Heinzerling: The bridges in iron. Verlag Otto Spamer, Leipzig 1870, p. 146 ( digitized on Google Books)
- ↑ US Railway Networks - 1830 to 1950 on cppr.org
- ^ Fritz Stüssi, Pierre Dubas: Basics of steel construction . Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg 1971, ISBN 978-3-642-95195-4 , p. 23 ( digital extracts from Google Books)
- ↑ The chain line was of course known, but the parabolic arch was much easier to calculate with the means at the time and led to approximately the same results in practice (cf.William Humber: A Complete Treatise on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction , p. 126 f Lockwood & Co., London 1870).
- ^ The railway bridge over the Firth of Forth on the website of Bernd Nebel
- ↑ River iron superstructures of the Vistula Bridge near Fordon. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung . XI. Volume, No. 40 (from October 3, 1891), p. 392 ( digitized , on kobv.de)
- ↑ Iron Bridges. In: Viktor von Röll (ed.): Encyclopedia of the Railway System . 2nd Edition. Volume 4: Express Train Driving Rules . Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin / Vienna 1913, pp 176 -201.
- ^ The bridges of the Siberian railway. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung, XVI. Volume, No. 39 (from September 26, 1896), p. 434 ( digitized on opus.kobv.de)
- ^ Royal Commission: Quebec Bridge Inquiry, Report; also Report on Design of Quebec Bridge by CC Schneider. Ottawa 1908 ( digitized version , PDF 2.1 kB) on archive.org
- ↑ Philipp Stein: 100 years of GHH bridge construction . Gutehoffnungshütte Oberhausen, Sterkrade plant, Oberhausen 1951, p. 160 .
- ↑ Further examples in Railway viaducts
- ^ Pennsylvania Railroad, Rockville Bridge. Historic American Engineering Record, HAER No. PA-524.
- ↑ Danhe Bridge on HighestBridges.com
- ↑ Louis-Joseph Vicat: Experimental investigations on building limes, concretes and ordinary mortar (1818)
- ↑ Traité pratique de l'art de bâtir en béton, ou Résumé des connaissances actuelles sur la nature et les propriétés des mortiers hydrauliques et bétons; et exposition des procédés à suivre pour employer cette espèce de maçonnerie, en remplacement de toute autre, dans les travaux publics et dans les constructions particulières . Carilian-Goeury et V. Dalmont, Paris 1843, p. 5 ( digitized on Gallica ).
- ↑ Concrete bridges. In: Viktor von Röll (ed.): Encyclopedia of the Railway System . 2nd Edition. Volume 2: Building Design - Brazil . Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin / Vienna 1912, p. 271 ff. (Table of executed stamped concrete arch bridges).
- ↑ Reinforced concrete construction, its theory and application. 1902
- ↑ Bernard Marrey: Les Ponts Modern; 20 e siècle. Picard éditeur, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-7084-0484-9 , p. 50
- ↑ Pont ferroviaire dit viaduc de la Méditerranée ... on Patrimoine de Rhône-Alpes.
- ↑ Francesco Aigner: Archery frame type Cruciani. In: Gerhard Mehlhorn, Manfred Curbach (Hrsg.): Handbuch Brücken , 3rd edition, Springer-Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-03339-2 ( partly preview in the Google book search )
- ↑ Reinhard Maurer: Prestressed concrete bridges . In: Tiefbau , 10th year 2005
- ↑ Günter Rombach: Prestressed concrete construction . 2nd Edition. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-433-02911-4 , pp. 16 .
- ^ Eugen Brühwiler, Christian Menn: Reinforced concrete bridges . 3. Edition. Springer-Verlag Wien, Vienna 2003, ISBN 978-3-7091-7261-2 , pp. 32 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ↑ G. Steinmann: The Baur – Leonhard method and the execution of bridges in prestressed concrete. In: Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Volume 72, No. 44 of October 30, 1954, pp. 639–644
- ↑ a b c Ulrich Finsterwalder, Herbert Schambeck: From the Lahn bridge Balduinstein to the Rhine bridge Bendorf. In: Der Bauingenieur, 40th year, issue 3 from March 1965, pp. 85–91
- ↑ Cengiz Dicleli: Ulrich Finsterwalder (1897-1988) - Doyen of bridge. In: 26th Dresden Bridge Construction Symposium - planning, construction, repair and upgrading of bridges - 14./15. March 2016 , proceedings 26th Dresden Bridge Construction Symposium, p. 119
- ↑ a b c Eugen Brühwiler, Christian Menn: Reinforced concrete bridges . 3. Edition. Springer-Verlag Wien, Vienna 2003, ISBN 978-3-7091-7261-2 , pp. 25 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ^ Fritz Leonhardt: Prestressed concrete for practice. 3rd edition, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1973, ISBN 3-433-00541-9
- ↑ Bernard Marrey: Les Ponts Modern; 20 e siècle. Picard éditeur, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-7084-0484-9 , p. 190
- ↑ The Weinland Bridge near Andelfingen. In: WERK, Swiss monthly for architecture, art, arts and crafts, volume 47, issue 2: Buildings of traffic, February 1960, doi : 10.5169 / seals-36702
- ↑ Leonardo Fernández Troyano: Bridge Engineering. A global perspective. Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puentes, Thomas Telford 2003, ISBN 0-7277-3215-3 , p. 412
- ↑ A list of the 86 bridges started up to 1964 can be found in Table 1 of the article by Ulrich Finsterwalder, Herbert Schambeck: From the Lahn Bridge Balduinstein to the Rhine Bridge Bendorf.
- ↑ Erwin Beyer, H. Thul: Hochstraßen. Planning, execution, examples . 2nd Edition. Beton-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1967. The work contains in table 1 on pages 20-27 a compilation of the generally approved tensioning systems
- ↑ Erwin Beyer, H. Thul: Hochstraßen. Planning, execution, examples . 2nd Edition. Beton-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1967, p. 33 .
- ^ Christian Menn: Reinforced concrete bridges . Springer-Verlag, Vienna, New York 1986, ISBN 3-211-81936-3 , p. 36
- ^ Fritz Leonhardt, Willi Baur: Bridge over the Rio Caroni, Venezuela. In: Beton- und Stahlbetonbau , Volume 61, Issue 2, February 1966, pp. 25–38
- ↑ EE Gibschmann, GK Jewgrafow, GI Singorenko, EIKriltzow, MS Rudenko: assembly methods for reinforced concrete bridges from prefabricated parts in the USSR. In: IABSE congress report = Rapport du congrès AIPC = IVBH Congress Report Volume 7, 1964: Seventh Congress (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), p. 823 ( doi : 10.5169 / seals-7891 )
- ^ Gerhard Mehlhorn: Beam bridges . In: Gerhard Mehlhorn (Ed.): Handbook bridges. P. 250, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2007. ISBN 978-3-540-29659-1 , p. 414
- ↑ Richard Heinen: Design-construction considerations for alternate systems; competitive bid encouragement . Pine Valley Creek Bridge. In: Walter Podolny, Jr. (Ed.): Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges . Structural Engineering Series No. 9. US Department of Transportation; Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC Aug 1979, pp. 139; Pine Valley Creek Bridge p. 142 ( full text in Google book search).
- ↑ Man-Chung Tang: The Story of the Koror Bridge . International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), 2014, ISBN 978-3-85748-136-9 ( iabse.org [PDF; 8.4 MB ]).
- ↑ The photo album China 2013 High Bridge Trip gives an impression of the countless modern Chinese bridges.
- ↑ Ponts suspendus réalisés by Marc Seguin et freres , on art-et-histoire.com. Retrieved March 9, 2013
- ^ Société Bayard de la Vingtrie on art-et-histoire.com
- ↑ a b c Marcel Prade: Ponts & Viaducs au XIXe Siècle. Brissaud, Poitiers 1988, ISBN 2-902170-59-9 .
- ↑ Sven Ewert: Bridges - The development of spans and systems. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-433-01612-7 , pp. 57-59.
- ↑ By mistake here is often a Henry Vicat called
- ^ Historical Development of Iron and Steel in Bridges
- ^ Louis Vicat , on Encyclopædia Britannica Online
- ^ Louis-Joseph Vicat: Description du pont suspendu construit sur la Dordogne à Argentat ... , Paris, 1830
- ^ A b c Richard Scott: In the wake of Tacoma, suspension bridges and the quest for aerodynamic stability . ASCE Press, Reston, Va. 2001, ISBN 0-7844-0542-5 .
- ↑ The lattice girders attached to the Bronx-Whitestone Bridge were only able to dampen vibrations in storms somewhat; it was not until the aerodynamically shaped cladding that was attached in 2004 that the bridge survived Hurricane Sandy without major vibrations.
- ^ A b Fritz Leonhardt: Bridges, Aesthetics and Design / Bridges, Aesthetics and Design. Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart 1982, ISBN 3-421-02590-8 , pp. 290-293.
- ↑ The collapse of the Nienburg inclined chain bridge on bernd-nebel.de
- ^ Michel Wagner: Les Ponts Gisclard, precurseurs des grands ponts à haubans.
- ^ Franz Dischinger: Suspension bridges for the heaviest traffic loads. In: Civil engineer , Springer Verlag, Düsseldorf; (I): March 1949, No. 3, pp. 65-75; (II): April 1949, No. 4, pp. 107-113
- ^ A b Fritz Leonhardt: Master builder in a revolutionary time. Memories. 2nd ed. Dt. Verl.-Anst., Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-421-02815-X .
- ^ Senior City Director of the State Capital Düsseldorf (Ed.): Bridges for Düsseldorf 1961–1962 . Springer, Berlin approx. 1963.
- ^ Holger Svensson: Cable-stayed bridges. 40 years of experience worldwide. Ernst & Sohn, Weinheim 2011, p. 60.
- ^ Gerhard Mehlhorn (Ed.): Handbook bridges. 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2010, ISBN 978-3-642-04422-9 , p. 92.