Timeline for the history of philosophy

The following chronological table on the history of philosophy is a chronologically ordered list of selected philosophers. It enables a quick orientation to the history of philosophy . The timetable is unsuitable as an introduction to philosophical thinking, as it only contains shortening keywords. Actual contents and justifications of the individual positions can only be inferred by dealing with the individual philosophers and their work. The necessary in parts arbitrary division into important periods and currents shows related and historically related ways of thinking to explain world events. By not naming twice, philosophers may not be listed in individual groups or currents, although they have made important contributions there too.

At the beginning of each section there is a short introduction to characterize the common content of the groups formed. For the individual philosophers, important basic statements of their philosophy and other content-related considerations are listed as theses. Here you can also find references to other areas in which the respective philosopher was active. These key words have the function of providing information on possible approaches to deepening the respective topic. In addition, information on other recent historical events enables a classification in the general history .

Antiquity The ancient European philosophy ( Greek φιλοσοφία) in connection with other advanced cultures of antiquity (the Hebrew , Egyptian , Mesopotamian and Persian ) established the worldview spectrum of the West . The focus is on a this-worldly life in harmony with the cosmic order. The fact that the beginnings of Indian and Chinese philosophy can be recorded roughly at the same time as the beginning of European ancient philosophy is recorded in the concept of the Axial Age.
Pre-Socratics 600–400 BC Chr. The term pre-Socratics is based on the untouched dictum of Marcus Tullius Cicero that Socrates brought philosophy from heaven to earth (see Socratic turn ). The pre-Socratics dealt mainly with natural philosophy , theogony and cosmogony and formulated the basic questions of philosophy . A central question that - like modern cosmologists - preoccupied above all the older pre-Socratics was that of the arché ( ἀρχή ; Arist. Met. I 3, 983 b8), the origin or beginning from which everything arose. The search was primarily for that which is uncreated, beginning and endless and unmoved. Ionic natural philosophy The eastern edge of the Aegean Sea in Asia Minor, settled by Greek Greeks, with the capital Miletus , became the starting point of ancient philosophy . This is where the Ionic natural philosophy begins . These countered the mythical worldview of the Homeric epics with a natural-philosophical explanation of the world. The search focused on a single (monistic) primordial reason ( hylozoism )
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 624-546	Thales of Miletus	Predicted eclipse Water as a primary substance	by 621 legislative Drakons 594 Reform Solons
around 610-547	Anaximander	First draft of a cosmogony The original material is that which is spatially and temporally unlimited ( Apeiron ): Anaximander already used a metaphysical concept of explanation that went beyond experience
at 585-525	Anaximenes	The substance of the cosmos is eternal Primordial matter ( Arché ) is the air	560 Tyranny of Peisistratus around 550 Peloponnesian League
at 499-428	Diogenes of Apollonia	similar to Anaximenes, held air for the primordial matter The essence of the soul is air mixed with blood. Nous is the force that orders and rules the universe and thus brings forth thought, soul and life Respected doctor	494 Destruction of Miletus by the Persians in the Battle of Ark
Eleates The Eleaten represented one of the oldest philosophical schools of ancient Greece. It is named after the city of Elea, which was founded by the Greeks and located on the western Italian coast . In addition to fragments, Aristotle ( metaphysics ) and Simplikios in particular serve as sources.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
around 570-470	Xenophanes	Men created gods, but God is eternal Knowledge is assumption, truth is not recognizable	Aeschylus (525-456)
at 515-445	Parmenides	Thinking and being are identical The being is immortal Nothing can also be thought of. Movement is just an illusion Physical occurrences are "opinion of mortals"	509–507 Reforms of Kleisthenes Pindar (518-446)
at 490-430	Zenon of Elea	Examined the space-time continuum Paradoxes , etc. a. Achilles and the Tortoise and the Arrow Paradox	Sophocles (497-406)
at 490-430	Melissos by Elea	Only fragments preserved Being is not only unlimited in time but also spatially
Other pre-Socratic philosophers
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 540-480	Heraclitus (Also called "The Dark One")	What is common in the world is the ever-changing fire The logos is the one that endures in the change of becoming ( Panta rhei ) Demanded the law of order for society, which is to apply among people as well as in nature The dispute (polemos) is the father of all things ( dialectic ) The essence of the world is the invisible harmony of opposites	500 Beginning of the Persian Wars
at 499-428	Anaxagoras	The world spirit ( nous ) composes the world from tiny elements All things experience can be traced back to simple substances. The downfall of things is retribution for injustice. Astronomer: The sun is a red-hot stone. Had to leave Athens in 434 and founded a school in Lampsakos	490 Battle of Marathon
at 494-434	Empedocles	Being is the matter and becoming is the force Love and hate are the primary forces of the four elements (roots of all things) earth, water, air and fire.	493-429 Pericles
Pythagoreans → See list of known Pythagoreans The starting point is a religion-like community founded by Pythagoras in Croton . In a broader sense, this means everyone who has since taken up ideas of Pythagoras and made them an essential part of their worldview. Much information about the Pytagoreans is speculative. Written reports are only available late from Iamblichus and Porphyrios.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
around 580-500	Pythagoras	Number as a universal principle, e.g. B. in music (compare Pythagoras in the forge ) The earth is spherical
around 500	Alkmaion	A lack of harmony causes illness The brain is the organ of perception
around 500	Hippasus of Metapontium	Discovered incommensurability
at 470-399	Philolaus of Croton	Documented the teaching of Pythagoras You only know the essence of things when you can describe them mathematically.
at 428-347	Archytas of Taranto	The number is the basis of knowledge Founded mathematical mechanics
around 400-335	Hiketas of Syracuse	Philosopher and astronomer The earth rotates around its axis
unsure	Ekphantos	Subjectivist, the earth rotates on its axis from west to east
Atomists The atomism denotes a cosmological theory, according to which the universe from the smallest particles, the atoms (Greek átomos that Unzerschneidbare, indivisible), is composed. These were thought of as discrete (i.e., separable from one another), infinitely hard , immutable, and eternal . Later atomists were Epicurus and Lucretius
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
5th century	Leucippus	Founder of atomism in the Abdera school Apeiron - the unlimited is empty space. Only (physical) beings are limited. The perceived properties of things are only appearances that are created by the combination of atoms that attract and also repel each other.
460-371	Democritus	True being ( matter ) consists of indivisible atoms in empty space In perception, reality is only appearance; but this has a correspondence to the real world. The atoms only have quantitative properties (size, weight, hardness, shape) Qualitative properties (color, tone, smell, taste) only exist in appearance The soul is also atomistic ( materialism ); it consists of particularly fine "fire atoms" that enliven the world. The smallest images (eidola = little pictures) emanate from things, which strike the fire atoms of the soul and thus generate perception Thought arises as the collision of the eidola as representations of things and the fire atoms of the soul. True happiness arises through measure and harmony when the fire atoms are only gently moved.	Hippocrates of Kos (approx. 460-370)
5th - 4th Century	Metrodorus of Chios	The pupil of Democritus is sometimes seen as a pioneer of the Pyrrhonic skepticism was a historian and meteorologist
360-320	Anaxarch	Student of Democritus Accompanied Alexander
Sophists As Sophists ( Greek  σοφισταί sophistai ) refers to a group of philosophers who as a teacher of wisdom and beautiful speech z. Some of them offered the art of speaking, thinking and processing against payment. In the heyday of sophistry, its representatives pointed people to the problems of the subjective factor in knowledge and values, albeit in the sense of a skepticism . From a critical point of view, sophists were viewed as "word twists". They can be viewed positively as enlighteners of ancient Greece. The sophists no longer focused on nature as an investigation, but on the relationships between people.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 490-411	Protagoras	Comes from the Leukipp school Truth only applies to the perceiver (pure sensualism ) There are two contradicting statements about every subject. "Man is the measure of all things" ( relativism ) Religion and the state are natural needs A sense of justice and moral awe are gifts of the gods.	480 Battle of Salamis
480-411	Antiphon	Writer of court speeches	477 1st Attic League
around 480-380	Gorgias	Famous rhetorician ; there is no being ( nihilism )
around 480-380	Hippias	Worked on squaring the circle Laws are made by people and are therefore not universally valid.	Herodotus (484-425)
at 465-399	Prodikos	Asked the ethics at the center	449 Peace of Callias
5th century	Xeniades	there are no true judgments and all statements made by people are false.
uncertain (5th century)	Archelaus	Disciple of Anaxagoras The just and the harmful are the product of convention .
at 460-403	Critias	Athenian politician, philosopher and poet Moral relativism Belief in the gods is based on good statecraft.
around 450	Thrasymachus	" Justice is the benefit of the stronger" (quotation in Plato's Politeia )
at 436–338	Isocrates	Run a rhetoric school
† at 375	Alkidamas	Disciple of Gorgias turned against slavery
around 400 to around 350	Lycophron	Is said to have understood the legal system as a balance of interests (Arist. Pol. III 9, 1280 b11) There is no such thing as a high and low born.
Greek Classical 450-300 BC Chr. The three great Athenians The three great Athenians shaped all of Western thought. Through the critical dialogue, Socrates showed that no knowledge is secured and, through his personal attitude, is considered a role model for a philosopher. Plato created the new genre of written dialogue and set new standards of thought in the breadth of his topics in metaphysics and epistemology , ethics , anthropology , state theory , cosmology , art theory and the philosophy of language . In contrast to Plato, Aristotle saw ideas as contained in things and thus gave the real world more weight again. He has achieved tremendous achievements for biology and medicine , but also for political empiricism and theory. In his encyclopedic thirst for knowledge as a philosopher he was also concerned with dynamics (δύναμις), movement (κίνησις), form and matter . His virtue ethics and his theory of justice extend to the present day. Aristotle founded classical logic with its syllogistics , the systematic of science and the theory of science .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
469-399	Socrates	Overcoming sophistic subjectivism in favor of moral individualism Concepts contain an immutable core, as absolute truth The truth has to be seen step by step To do this, he makes use of the “midwifery art” ( Mäeutik ) by asking questions, the answers of which in turn trigger questions This makes our ignorance clear (" I know that I know nothing! ") The consequence of this lack of knowledge are moral errors Therefore, knowledge ( wisdom ) is the highest virtue to be attained Virtue is insight into what is good Wisdom is to be gained through enlightenment and education Self-knowledge is the highest moral obligation (" know yourself ") Is seen as a criticism of the basic principles of society Therefore execution by the hemlock cup	Thucydides (460-396) 431–404 Peloponnesian War 404–403 Rule of the Thirty
427-347	Plato	Critique of the relativism of sophistry, which does not recognize true virtues ( Theaetetos ) In the body world, which also includes the soul, there is only perception and opinions (doxa) In addition, there is an incorporeal world of ideas that is recognized by concepts ( Phaedrus , allegory of the cave ) and is what is truly being. It is simple, unchangeable, non-existent and immortal ( Symposium 211 b) Knowledge does not arise in the experience, but in the memory (anamnesis) of the soul (example: Pythagorean theorem in Menon ) The clarification of the terms and the use of words takes place in the dialectic ( Sophistes 253 d) The ideas are archetypes (paradeigmata) in the world of beings, which have their images (eidola) in the world of becoming (genesis) . The individual things are never identical imitations (mimesis) of the presence (parousia) of the ideas Ideas are hierarchically ordered with the most general terms (sophistes), of which the idea of ​​the good is the highest. The immortal soul connects the body world (courage - tymos and desire - epitymia) ( Timaeus ) with the world of ideas (reason - logiston) ( Phaidon ) The parts of the soul correspond to cardinal virtues - wisdom (sophia), bravery (andrea) and self-control (sophresyne). The right relationship is established through justice (dikaiosyne) as the supreme virtue ( politeia ) The roles in the state correspond to the parts of the soul: the educational level of the educated (philosophoi), the military level of the guards and the nutritional level of the artisans and farmers Justice prevails when everyone does his own thing and thereby also receives his own. The bridge between appearances and ideas is created by the world-forming divine ( demiurge ). The principle of what remains the same (tauton) and what changes (thateron) is the world soul (Timaeus). The means of connection are the principles of mathematics (see Platonic solids ).	Xenophon (430–354) Spartan supremacy Eudoxos of Knidos (410 or 408–355 or 347) Influential mathematician
at 384-322	Aristotle	Philosophy as the first science examines beings as beings Teacher of Alexander the great the critical examination of the history of philosophy provides a synthesis of previous theories above all criticizes the doubling of the world by Plato Axiomatic method for determining supreme principles. ( Organon ) Doctrine of substance and categories semantic theory of language as a symbolic illustration. ( De interpretations ) systematic classification of the sciences Justification of formal logic as a scientific method against sophistry Syllogistics as a conclusion from a premise and a middle clause on a particular ( deduction ) The particular arises from the general, but in the knowledge one must empirically start from the individual things (phainomena) which already contain the general ( induction or epagoge) Basic principle of nature is movement, in which the matter the shape changed (and decay - hylemorphism ) Every becoming is the realization of a possibility ( act and potency ) Four effective causes: causa materialis (substance), causa formalis (form), causa efficiens (cause), causa finalis (goal) Continuum is always divisible (length, movement, time) There are tiny particles (minima naturalia) which (unlike Democrit's atoms) change their shape in different situations The origin of all movement and all being is a (divine) unmoved mover only the objects of mathematics are immutable Because in practice (ethics, poietics, rhetoric) premises are not generally valid, but must be recognized by the interlocutor, syllogisms in this area are dialectical arguments ( topic ) In practice it is not about knowledge (episteme), but about insight (phronesis) The primary goal is the good as bliss ( eudaimonism ), which is achieved through the training of virtue. Virtue is a mean between two extremes ( Mesotes - doctrine in virtue ethics ) Man is not only a rational being (zoon logon echon), but also a community being (zoon politikon) An ideal state constitution is without extremes ( tyranny ), but also not democracy, but politics in which the insightful and virtuous rule.	Alexander the Great Euclid (approx. 365 to approx. 300)
Socratics Individual students of Socrates are not assigned to any particular trend.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 465–395	Crito	Friend and contemporary of Socrates'
at 426-366	Xenophon	Historian Socrates student and second source on Socrates
at 425–355	Aeschines from Sphettos	Pupil of Socrates
Megarics Megarics are the names of the followers of the Socrates disciple Euclid of Megara, who determined beings as good. Because of their logical disputes and dialectical subtleties, they are also called Eristicians .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
around 450-380	Euclid from Megara	Socratic students Founder of the Megarian School Developed a theory of refutation Virtue or the good is the only immutable being.
around 400 BC Chr.	Eubulides of Miletus	Socratic students Representative of the Megarian School
around 360-280	Stilpon	Representative of the Megarian School Made the eristic dialectic popular
around 300 BC Chr	Diodoros Kronos	Dialecticians of the Megarian School Predecessor of the Stoa
around 300 BC Chr.	Philo of Megara	Dialecticians of the Megarian School
Elish-Eretrian School
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
around 400 BC Chr.	Phaedo of Elis	Founder of the Elish School , which was close to the Megarics
at 350-278	Menedemus of Eretria	Founder of the Eretrian School as a continuation of the Elish School
Cynic The core of the teaching of Kynismus [ kyˈnɪsmʊs ] ( ancient Greek κυνισμός kynismós , literally "doggedness" in the sense of "bitterness") is a philosophical attitude that emphasizes needlessness and independence. Shame in front of things perceived as natural (e.g. nudity ) is rejected. Cynics often lived on alms .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 445–365	Antisthenes	Cynic who advocated an original way of life
at 405-320	Diogenes	Said to Alexander: "Take your shadow from me."
at 365-285	Krates of Thebes	Comes from a wealthy family, lived with Hipparchia on the move and influenced the Stoa.
at 335-252	Bion of Borysthenes	Wrote About slavery , About anger
3rd century	Menippus of Gadara	satirist
Cyrenaic In addition to subjectivism , an early form of hedonism , which is about the awareness of self-control in pleasure, was taught in this school . The main source is Diogenes Laertius .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 435–355	Aristippus of Cyrene	Pupil of Socrates Founder of the Cyrenean school of philosophy The ability to enjoy is a virtue ; Lust is a gentle movement Education and knowledge are required for real enjoyment . followed in epistemology the sensualism of Protagoras
around 400-330	Arete of Cyrene	Daughter of Aristippus the Elder and mother of Aristippus the Younger
4th century BC Chr.	Aristippus the Younger	The grandson examined urges and feelings.
4th-3rd Century BC Chr.	Annikeris	Is said to have ransomed Plato from the captivity of Dionysius I of Syracuse . Spiritual joys are better than physical joys. approved self-sacrifice.
4th-3rd Century BC Chr.	Hegesias	Happiness is painlessness and being free from displeasure. ( Pessimism ) demanded forbearance towards the erring.
around 335–270 BC Chr.	Theodorus of Cyrene	"The Atheist "; The aim is a prejudice-free world knowledge Sacrifice for others and commitment to the community are stupid.
Hellenism and Late Antiquity 300 BC Chr.– 570 AD The classical approaches were continued in Hellenism . The very influential Alexandrian School arose in Alexandria , while the Peripatetics developed the approaches of Aristotle and the Platonic Academy Plato followed. At the transition from the 4th to the 3rd century BC With the Stoa and Epicureanism, two philosophical schools emerged, which radiated far beyond the time and place of their origin and marked ethical basic positions for a happy life. In late antiquity , although there were still representatives of directions such as cynicism, Neoplatonism as a philosophical direction was decisive. Platonic Academy In the Akademeia mentioned grove of the Attic hero Academus bought in the northwest of Athens Plato (probably 387 v. Chr.) A piece of land, where he earned a cult area for the Muses instituted and began to teach philosophy and science classes. The "Older Academy" dealt with the interpretation and commentary on Plato's writings. In the 3rd century Arkesilaos gave the academy a new, skeptical direction, which it continued into the early 1st century BC. Chr. Retained. Therefore one speaks of the "younger academy" for this epoch.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
408-339	Speusippos	Nephew and pupil of Plato Head of the Academy ( Scholarch ) Author of an encyclopedia
396-314	Xenocrates	Divided philosophy into logic, physics, and ethics	323–280 diadoch fights
at 390 to after 322	Herakleides Ponticos		Menander
† 276 or 275	Soloi crane gate	"About the grief"
around 350 to approx. 270/269	Polemon of Athens	Scholarch Formulated the goal of a natural life
† 268–264	Athens crates	Scholarch	Ptolemy II sponsors the Museion of Alexandria and expands the library of Alexandria through acquisitions and a. the library of Aristotle
316-241	Arkesilaos	Scholarch, followed up on the Socratic aporetics to Taught abstention (skeptical approach)	Lycophron from Chalcis is known for the art of the anagram . Callimachus
† 207	Lakydes	Scholarch	Archimedes Apollonios of Rhodes wrote the saga of the Argonauts
214-129	Carneades	Truth as empirical evidence only with probability Infinite recourse problem	148 Macedonia becomes a Roman province
at 185-110	Kleitomachos	Scholarch, representative of academic skepticism
† 84/83 BC Chr	Philo of Larissa	Teacher of Antiochus of Ascalon	Heron of Alexandria , mathematician and engineer
at 140 / 125–68	Antiochus of Ascalon	Association of Platonism , Peripatetics and Stoa ( eclecticism ), founded its own school ("Old Academy") Teacher Cicero
116-27	Marcus Terentius Varro	Composed extensive literature Encyclopedia in nine books	Egypt becomes a Roman province
Peripatos and later Aristotelians Peripatos (περίπατος "foyer") is the name of the philosophical school of Aristotle. He and his close friend and colleague Theophrast taught at Lykeion , a park with a gymnasium in southern Athens. According to Lykon, the doxographic tradition breaks off. The connection to Aristotle in the first century BC by Andronikos is classified as Aristotelianism .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 371-287	Theophrastus	Successor of Aristotle Instead of the causa finalis ( teleology ) emphasizes the causa efficiens (natural causality) wrote botanical writings and a history of physics
unsure	Eudememos	Theophrastus' competitor for the school administration Wrote on math and astronomy
at 350	Aristoxenus	Developed a music theory based on sensations
before 340	Klearchos from Soloi	Wrote About Upbringing
unsure	Dikaiarchos	wrote an early cultural history about the life of Greece (bios hellados)
unsure	Critolaos of Phaselis
340-269	Straton of Lampsakos	Scholarch nicknamed "the physicist" Interpreted Aristotle materialistically The working force of form is in matter itself Thinking and perceiving are interdependent
310-230	Aristarchus of Samos	Developed a heliocentric worldview and thought the sun was a fixed star
3rd century BC Chr.	Lycon from the Troad	directed the Peripatos from 269 to 226
1st century BC Chr.	Andronikos of Rhodes	Innovator of the Aristotelian philosophy put the writings of Aristotle in the order we know today.
2nd century	Sosigenes the Peripatetic	Stimulator of Nicolaus Copernicus in drawing up its heliocentric system
2nd or 3rd century	Alexander of Aphrodisias	is considered the most important and powerful Aristotle commentator of the ancient world
5th century	Martianus Capella	Defined the canon of the seven liberal arts Trivium : grammar, rhetoric, logic Quadrivium : arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy
Epicureans Ancient Epicureanism , also known as κῆπος (kêpos, "garden"), was one of the four great philosophical schools of post-classical antiquity . It is also characterized as agnosticism .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
341-270	Epicurus	Gathered his students in a garden (Kepos) Materialist basic conception (atomist) strived for inner peace of mind (imperturbability - Ataraxía ) Happiness is pleasure with moderation (so not pure hedonism ) The beautiful as spiritual enjoyment is higher than physical enjoyment, which brings excitement. The state is a treaty so as not to harm yourself. Laws are agreements for common benefit ( utilitarianism )
at 340 to 260	Hermarchus	directed the school after Epicurus' death
330-277	Metrodorus of Lampsakos	a friend and student of Epicurus
2nd century BC Chr.	Demetrios Lakon
around 150–70	Zenon of Sidon	Epicurean philosopher, mathematician and logician
around 110-35	Philodemus of Gadara	Epicurean philosopher and poet
at 97-55	Lucretius	Philosophical writer Conscious connection to Epicurus
Stoa Stoa (Greek στοὰ ποικίλη - "painted vestibule") refers to a columned hall on the market square of Athens ( Agora ), in which Zenon of Kition taught. The philosophy is aimed at the cosmological , holistic understanding of the world. The stoic attains wisdom through the practice of emotional self-control and with the help of serenity and peace of mind .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
336-264	Zeno of Kition	Put logic first to remove errors. Sensations are impressions of individual objects in the soul ( nominalism ) With the doctrine of catalepsis (evidence) is considered the founder of stoicism . The state is a reasonable community of all people	around 300 Euclid
331-251	Kleanthes	As a former pugilist, earned his living doing unskilled labor. Virtuous action is only possible through the knowledge of reality . Turned against the naturalists Democritus and Aristarchus	from approx. 250 ascent of Rome
276-204	Chrysippus	With 705 books he created the essential foundations of the Stoa. There is only natural necessity ( determinism ) Perception is a change in properties in the soul Concepts are generalizations of the objects present in perception. Formulated the stoic ideal of freedom from affects Nature is functional. The evaluation of events as evils (accidents, illnesses) is done by humans Justice and philanthropy are the primary duties of reason	Archimedes (280-212)
around 250 BC Chr.	Ariston of Chios	Teacher of Eratosthenes
3rd or 2nd century BC Chr.	Zenon of Tarsus		Second Punic War (218 to 201)
around 240-150	Diogenes of Babylon	Teaching about the goal of life (Telos) and about ethical principles Created a stoic doctrine of meaning in dialectic	Eratosthenes (276/273 – around 194)
201-120	Polybios	Wrote a universal story in 40 books. Developed the theory of the constitutional cycle	146 Conquest of Carthage
† around 137 BC Chr.	Antipater of Tarsus	Defended the Stoa against Carneades	133–121 Reforms of the Gracchi
around 180 BC Chr.	Panaitios of Rhodes	Wrote a lost work on duty. Took elements of the skeptical academy into his teaching ( syncretism )
135-51	Poseidonios	Affects are caused by irrational parts of the soul	82–79 Sulla's dictatorship
106-43	Cicero	Politician, lawyer, rhetorician Represented eclectic doctrines of the Stoa and the new Academy Is considered the inspirer of humanism . there are innate ideas ( ideae innatae ), especially the basic concepts of morality and law, as well as belief in the divine and in the immortality of the soul Doctrine of common sense ( consensus gentium ) Doctrine of natural law . Difference like later Kant legality (rectum) and morality (honestum)	70 Consulate of Pompey and Crassus 44 Assassination of Caesar Sallust (86-35)
1st century BC Chr./1. Century AD	Sotion	Seneca's teacher	1st century BC Chr. Diodor Horace (65-8)
4 v. Chr. up to 65	Seneca	Writer who also dealt with practical questions of ethics.	12 BC Chr. Augustus Pontifex Maximus Livy (59–17 AD)
at 30-80	Gaius Musonius Rufus	The purpose of philosophy is to attain virtue Teacher of epictetus
at 50-138	Epictetus	Wrote a manual of morals . "It is not things that worry people, but rather their view of things."	54-68 Nero 79 Fall of Pompeii Tacitus (58-120)
121-180	Marcus Aurelius	With his “self-contemplation” he created guidelines for his practical action.
Skeptics Most of the works of the skeptics of antiquity have only survived in the form of quotes from other authors; but there is a large and coherent representation of the school (“ground plan of the pyrrhonic skepticism”) by its last important representative, Sextus Empiricus.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
360-270	Pyrrhon of Elis	Founder of skepticism Truth cannot be ascertained either through sensory perception or through judgments. Because there is no knowledge, there is also no doctrine of right action Man only knows his emotional states at most
around 320-230	Timon of Phleius	Wrote mock poems about the dogmatists.
1st century BC Chr.	Ainesidemos	Demanded abstention from judgment ( epoché ), Developed ten tropes (tropoi - reasons of skepticism)	43 BC To 17 AD Ovid
unsure	Agrippa	You cannot justify a belief ( Münchhausen Trilemma ) Five tropes: 1st conflict, 2nd infinite regress , 3rd relativity , 4th unproven prerequisite , 5th parallel (circular reasoning )
200-250	Sextus Empiricus	Writings against syllogistics and religion
around 220	Diogenes Laertios	Composed a Greek history of philosophy in ten books.
Middle and Neo-Platonists In late antiquity, Neoplatonism became more important as a philosophical direction, which also had a stimulating and fruitful effect on the thinking of the Christian church fathers in a process that was probably interlinked . The urge of philosophers such as Plotinus and later Proclus to standardize (search for the one , the divine) resulted in a return to Plato and a reorientation of the Platonic doctrine of ideas. This resulted in possible links between Neo-Platonism and the Christian religion, which extended into the beginning of medieval philosophy.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
around 15 or 10 BC Until after 40	Philo of Alexandria	Is considered the most important thinker of Hellenistic Judaism
at 45-125	Plutarch	Middle Platonists Extensive writings on ethics 23 biographies with a comparison of a Greek and a Roman
87-150	Claudius Ptolemy	Developed the geocentric worldview that was decisive for the Middle Ages. Authored an extensive work on mathematics and astronomy
2nd century	Albinos	Wrote an introduction to Platonic philosophy.
2nd century	Alcinous	Wrote a summary of Platonic teachings.
2nd century	Numenios of Apamea	His Neo-Pythagorean writings influenced the later Neo-Platonism.
around 125 to around 170	Apuleius	Writer and Philosopher (Metamorphoses)
around 150-200	Celsus	Sharp critic of Christianity
150 to after 215	Clement	Correct teaching is achieved through knowledge based belief God himself is invisible and inexpressible.
185-253 or 254	Origen	Allegorical scriptural interpretation Philosophy has the task of permeating the scriptures
around 180–242	Ammonios Saqqas	Founder of Neoplatonism Teacher of Plotinus
205-270	Plotinus	Researched the philosophy of the Persians and Indians His Enneades were written down by Porphyrios Teaching: The primordial ground is the indescribable one and its emanation , through which the spirit (nous) arises. The world soul stands as the third level between true being and matter (hyle) In order to become one with the one, the human soul must purify itself from sensuality (catharsis)
at 212-272	Kassios Longinos	Disciple of Ammonios Sakkas, but still a Middle Platonist himself
at 234-304	Porphyry	Is considered a resolute opponent of Christianity. Wrote a systematic introduction to the categories of Aristotle ( isagogue ) Source for the universals dispute
around 250-330	Iamblichos	Expanded Plotin's doctrine of emanation	337 Baptism of Constantine on the death bed
at 350	Dexippus	Pupil of Iamblichus
† at 355	Aidesios	Pupil of Iamblichus
† 372	Maximus of Ephesus	Aidesios pupil Teacher of the later Roman emperor Julian
331-363	Emperor Julian	Promoter of Neoplatonism
at 350-431 or 433	Plutarch of Athens	Teacher of Syrianos and Proclus
at 370-416	Hypatia	Mathematician , astronomer , mechanic and philosopher , daughter of Theon of Alexandria Was murdered by Christians
5th century	Hierocles	Commentary on the Pythagorean Golden Verses
† around 437	Syrianos
410-485	Proclus	Head of the Academy Important source for scholasticism and the renaissance	476 Deposition of Romulus Augustulus by Odoacer means end of western Rome
at 458-540	Damascius	Teacher of Simplikios, Philosophy of Time
at 490-570	John Philoponos	Early Christian thinker and scientist Written comments by Aristotle
6th century	Simplicity	Emigrated to closure of the academy 529 by Justinian I of Persia Written comments by Aristotle
Early Chinese Philosophy Confucianism 561–220 BC Chr. The Confucianism is going back to its founder Kongzi tradition of thought, based on a collection of writings ( thirteen classics builds) in which the respected as exemplary moral and political lessons and the way of life are presented of Confucius and interpreted.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 561-479	Confucius	Five virtues: mutual love, righteousness, conscientiousness, honesty, reciprocity ( golden rule ) Three social duties: loyalty , filial piety , respect for decency and morals Five elementary relationships: father-son, ruler-subject, husband-wife, older-younger, friend-friend Five classic books: Book of Changes (contains the teaching of Yin and Yang ), Book of Songs , Book of Certificates , Spring and Autumn Annals , Book of Rites	Eastern Zhou Dynasty The time of the spring and autumn annals (722 to 481 BC)
370-290	Mengzi	Human nature is good Heaven is the abstract supreme principle of all that is
at 298-220	Xunzi	Man is naturally evil but can get better through education.	Warring States Period (475 BC to 221 BC)
legalism The legalism originated in the Warring States Period (around 480 v. Chr. To 221 v. Chr.), Stressing rewards and punishments as fundamental principles for preserving the social order.
at 280-233	Han Fei	Laws must apply to everyone; people only get better through the threat of punishment
at 280-208	Li Si	Author of the book burning of 213 Chinese script reformer
Daoism The Daoism v has its historical origin in the 4th century. Its central script is the Daodejing . Depending on the trend, Daoism can be described as a religion, a worldview or a philosophy. The core concept is the Dao , originally only way, method, principle, but with Laozi the general principle underlying the whole world, the origin of reality, which is split into light and shadow, into yin and yang .
6th century	Laozi	(Legendary) author of the Daodejing (Dao = way or meaning, De = virtue, Jing = book)
at 365-290	Zhuangzi	Main work: The true book from the southern blossom country (= Zhuangzi) Emphasis on yin and yang Manners and customs are not an end in themselves. Things and the world are ever changing.
at 355-240	Zou Yan	combined the teaching of Yin and Yang with the five-element teaching Member of the Jixia Academy
Mohism The Mohism is a similar Confucianism flow whose central concept is the righteousness which is primarily attributable to acquired virtues. Mohism turned more to the common people and emphasized hierarchical structures less than Confucianism.
at 490-380	Mozi	Pragmatic promotion of welfare "Those who love others will be loved again." The general standard is the "will of heaven."
New Confucianism In neoconfucianism, which emerged during the Chinese Song dynasty , influences from Buddhism and Daoism are at work in addition to Confucianism.
1017-1073	Zhou Dunyi	Contrast of Taiji (the highest finite) and Wuji (the highest infinite)	Song Dynasty (960-1279)
1011-1077	Shao Yong
1020-1077	Zhang Zai	Basic concept of Qi
1130-1200	Zhu Xi	commented on the book The Great Learning taught at the Academy of the White Stag Grotto created the Four Books of Confucianism
1501-1570	I Hwang	Brought Confucianism to Korea	Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
1561-1619	Fujiwara Seika	Formerly Confucian in Japan
Early Indian Philosophy
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
unsure	Charvaka	materialism
Upanishads The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu philosophical writings and are part of the Veda . 108 Upanishads are recognized, which are listed in the Muktika-Upanishad, a list that is at least 700 years old. The texts were written both in prose and in verse and date approximately from the period between 700 BC. BC and 200 BC Chr.
2nd century	Gautama (Rishi)	Nyaya : teaching of logical reasoning
unsure	Canada	Vaisheshika : Metaphysics and Natural Philosophy ( Atomism ) Knowledge arises from examining the differences
unsure	Kapila	Samkhya : determination of being by enumerating its elements Dualism of Prakriti (active primordial nature = matter without consciousness) and Purusha (passive mind with consciousness)
unsure	Patanjali	Yoga as an eight-limb exercise that leads to a remote experience
at 788-820	Shankara	Advaita Vedanta
1017-1137	Ramanuja	Vishishtadvaita-Vedanta (non-dualism) Matter and souls represent the body of God all properties of creation are real and under the control of God
1486-1533	Chaitanya	Achintya Bhedabheda simultaneous unity and diversity of truth all souls and all matter (Prakriti) are transformations of the energy of the highest truth
Buddhism The Buddhism is a teaching tradition and religion, which is mainly used in South, Southeast and East Asia. "Buddha" (literally "awakened") is an honorary title that refers to an experience that is Bodhi ("awakening"), a fundamental and liberating insight into the basic facts of all life, from which the overcoming of painful existence results. referred to as. Achieving this knowledge based on the example of the historical Buddha by following his teachings is the goal of Buddhist practice, which rejects the two extremes of asceticism and hedonism as well as radicalism in general, but instead seeks a middle path in each case .
around 563–483 BC Chr.	Siddhartha Gautama	The following applies: “Everything is” as well as “nothing exists”, everything is in the process of becoming.
around 100–200 AD	Nagarjuna	Trying to solve the riddle of being is irrational. ( Mahayana ) The right solution lies in neither-nor Doctrine of the two truths, the fourfold reasoning (yes, no, partly, neither nor) and the eightfold negation of becoming.	The time of the Shatavahana from about 230 BC. Until around 220 AD
around 250-350 AD	Harivarman	Nihilism : taught a system in which neither persons nor external objects truly exist ( Hinayana )	Classical time in India Gupta Empire
around 420–500 AD	Vasubandhu	Realism : The physical world is real, there is just no permanent self ( Mahayana )
around 420–500 AD	Asanga	Idealism : Truth arises neither from the affirmation nor from the denial of reality True being has only ideas ( Hinayana ) Later switched to teaching his brother
7th century	Dharmakirti	Buddhist logician
1222-1282	Nichiren	Founder of a school of Buddhism in Japan , Nichiren Buddhism
middle Ages The philosophy of the Middle Ages encompasses very diverse currents that have developed in Europe from the end of antiquity to the Reformation . In the occidental culture it is shaped and carried by Christianity in patristicism . Misunderstood as a "dark" epoch, there was already much in medieval thinking that was formulated by the Renaissance , Humanism and finally the Enlightenment . The knowledge of antiquity was initially preserved and passed on in monasteries . What is more decisive for the Latin West is the wealth of knowledge that it has acquired through translations by Arabic and, in some cases, Jewish philosophers. It flourished at the end of the 11th century, accompanied by the establishment of the first universities at which the Artes Liberales were taught. In the 12th century, the Byzantine and Islamic world was still culturally and scientifically superior to Europe. With the fall of the Byzantine Empire, scholars increasingly passed this knowledge down to Western Europe in the 15th century and thus contributed to the development of the Renaissance.
Patristic In Christian theology and philosophy, patristic is the science that deals with the time of the church fathers , that is, with the epoch of the early church from the 1st century to the 7th or early 8th century at the latest. Apostolic Fathers The Apostolic Fathers wrote ecclesiastically significant writings in the late first and first half of the second century.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 50–97 / 101	Clement of Rome	First letter to Clement
at 150	Hermas	Wrote critically against philosophy
† 107	Ignatius		64 Fire of Rome under Nero Martyrdom of Paul and Peter
69-155	Polycarp		around 70 origin of the Gospel of Mark
Heretics and Gnosis In early Christianity there was a pluralism of theological perspectives. One of the early problems of Christianity was to differentiate itself in the syncretistic culture of Hellenism from syncretistic religions such as Gnosticism and Manichaeism, which mixed Christian dogmas in whole or in part with other religions or self-constructions. Gnostic movements were named after their leaders or founders as Valentinians , Simonians or Basilidians .
at 125	Basilides	The soul is a stranger lost on earth One reaches the sphere of God through the solution of everything earthly
at 150	Valentinus
85-160	Marcion from Sinope	Marcionism
216-276 or 277	Mani	Persian religion of Manichaeism Redemption through the victory of light over darkness
Apologists The apologists defended the Christian apology , which shows Christianity in the Roman Empire as a reasonable religion , against attacks from other religions and philosophies .
100-163	Justin the Martyr	Philosophy leads to God But only Scripture answers final questions	132–135 Bar Kochba uprising with subsequent dispersal of the Jews
130-190	Athenagoras	Petition for the Christians to Emperor Mark Aurel
unsure	Tatian	Talk to the Greeks
120-200	Irenaeus	Fought against the heretics as Bishop of Lyon is considered the founder of church dogmatics
160-225	Tertullian	Was the first to write in Latin and created important terms in Church Latin Philosophy has only one complementary task The belief in revelation is a belief in something overly rational (credo quia absurdum)	around 200 beginning of the papacy
200-258	Cyprian	Represented infant baptism Developed the doctrine of faith as the grace of God	around 200 first Latin Bible (Itala)
Theological systematizations Only gradually did the Trinitarians prevail , the allegorical interpretation of scriptures and a gradual rapprochement between Christianity and Neoplatonism arose .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
at 260–336	Arius of Alexandria	Denied the Trinity of God Was the starting point for Arianism	311 Edict of Tolerance by Galerius ends persecution of Christians
260 or 264–337 or 340	Eusebius of Caesarea	Considered through his chronicles as the founder of church history	325 Council of Nicaea with condemnation of Arianism
at 298–373	Athanasius	Taught the Trinity Resolute opponent of Arius	330 Constantinople becomes the capital
315-367	Hilary of Poitiers	Authoritative representative of the Trinitarians
335-394	Gregory of Nyssa	Church father for the Orthodox Church Taught the infinity of God and the Trinity	391 Christianity as the state religion under Theodosius
340-397	Ambrose of Milan	Was a moderate Trinitarian Convert Augustine	395 Empire division into western and eastern currents
354-430	Augustine	Created basic theology for nearly 1,000 years The task of philosophy is to scientifically present and justify church doctrine ( dogmatics ) Doctrine of grace : redemption from original sin through God's will ( predestination ) God's mercy is revealed in redemption, God's righteousness in condemnation (doctrine of double predestination) God is the one (unum), truth (verum), good (bonum), which is why every knowledge of reason is knowledge of God. Even the skeptic must acknowledge the presence of sensations (inner experience = dualism of body and soul ). The soul is the whole of the personality. The soul activities are imagination (memoria), judgment (intellectus) and will (voluntas). Correspondingly, reality is determined by being (esse), knowing (nosse) and willing (velle). Man's drive is his will. The true fulfillment of the will is the contemplation of God. Distinguishes in the divine state between a worldly kingdom on this side and a divine state on the other ( doctrine of two kingdoms ) The aim is to overcome the worldly kingdom in favor of the God-state and thus to overcome the alienation between man and God Philosophy of Time and Philosophy of Doubt	410 Conquest of Rome by the Visigoths 429 vandals conquer North Africa The Christian poet Prudentius (* 348 - † after 405) wrote the Psychomachia
480-524	Boethius	Discussed the problem of universals in the Proclus Commentary Wrote the consolation of philosophy before his execution	476 Odoacer overthrows the last Western Roman emperor
around 500	Pseudo-Dionysius Areopagita	Unknown writer Everything visible is only a simile of the invisible The ascent to the one is achieved through purification, enlightenment and contemplation	approx. 600 end of the migration
Scholasticism 500-1400 Early Middle Ages The transition period between patristic and scholastic did not produce any independent new thinking. However, there were a number of important people who played a decisive role in the transmission of ancient education.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
† 636	Isidore of Seville	Wrote an encyclopedia called Etymologiae	507 Clovis I conquered southern Gaul, beginning of the Frankish Empire
† 662	Maximus the Confessor	Commented Augustine and Boethius	568 Longobards end the rule of Eastern Stream in Italy
at 673-735	Beda Venerabilis	Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Church history of the English people) System of time calculation
675-750	John of Damascus	Byzantine Doctor of the Church	630 conquest of Mecca by Muhammad 711 Moors in Spain
730-804	Alcuin	Headed the court school of Charlemagne ( Carolingian Renaissance ) Made the seven liberal arts (artes liberales) compulsory lesson content.	751 Pippin the Younger founds the Carolingian empire 800 Charlemagne is coronated as emperor
780-856	Rabanus Maurus	Wrote the encyclopedia de universo	862 Rurik in Novgorod
810-877	Eriugena	Irish natural philosopher who emphasized the importance of reason. Own system with God as the cause and goal of all being Took over the emanation of Plotinus and rejected Augustine's predestination from	871–899 Alfred the Great of England
around 950-1028	Fulbert of Chartres	Founder of the Chartres School ( Cathedral School )
around 950-1022	Notker Teutonicus	First Aristotle commentator of the Middle Ages	936–973 Otto I German Emperor (962)
Islamic philosophy Before the development of Latin scholasticism, there was an Arabic and, within it, also a Jewish academic culture, through which numerous Greek texts were conveyed, interpreted and updated. In medicine, the natural sciences, mathematics, jurisprudence, logic, etc., Western Latin only caught up with Arab culture in the 12th and 13th centuries.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
800-870	Alkindus (al-Kindī)	Translated Greek texts, founded the Arabic philosophy dealt u. a. with peripatetic natural philosophy	around 570–632 Mohammed 749 Beginning of Abbasid rule
864-925	Rhazes (al-Razi)	Eminent Persian doctor, scientist, philosopher and writer	976-1025 Emperor Basil II of Byzantium 998–1030 Mahmud of Ghazni , who brings Islam to India.
870-950	Alpharabius (al-Fārābī)	Translates and teaches Greek philosophy attempts a synthesis of what he considers Aristotelian and Platonic also dealt with math and music	1071 Seljuks defeat Byzantium at the Battle of Manzikert and conquer Jerusalem
980-1037	Avicenna (Ibn Sina)	Systematic elaboration of Farabi's approaches Conceptualism and Emanation	1085 Toledo is conquered by the Christians.
1058-1111	Algazel (al-Ghazālī)	Persian Ash'ari theologian and philosopher attacks numerous teachings largely represented by Avicenna
1126-1198	Averroes (Ibn Ruschd)	Aristotle's commentaries (for the Latin philosophy of the Middle Ages "The Commentator") There is exactly one active intellect Philosophy is a religious duty for intellectuals, but religion communicates the truth to all defends a radical “Aristotelianism” against al-Ghazālī	Under Saladin (1137–1193) Egypt becomes Sunni again. 1187 Saladin defeats the crusaders on the Sea of ​​Galilee
1332-1406	Ibn Khaldun	Arab historian Describes historical connections with interests that would be called “sociological” today	1326 Orhan I conquered Bursa
Early scholasticism Early scholasticism is the time of school philosophy, in which outstanding thinkers no longer limited themselves to monastic contemplation, but wanted to question and discuss obvious contradictions in church teachings with arguments of reason. Often such discussions put them in danger. They were condemned as heretics and had to revoke their theses if they did not want to take any risks for life and limb. Nevertheless, there were always free spirits who stood up for reason out of conviction.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
† 1088	Berengar of Tours	In the sacrament controversy, he saw bread and wine only as symbolic. Argued that in reason he was made in the image of God.	987–1328 Capetians in France 1024–1125 Salier in Germany
1005-1089	Lanfrank from Bec	In the sacrament controversy, I did not want to follow reason, but only the authorities.	1046 Synod of Sutri Removal of three rival popes
1006-1072	Petrus Damiani	Fought against the immorality of the Roman clergy. Coined the saying of philosophy as the handmaid of theology.	1054 Separation ( schism ) of Rome from the Eastern Church
1033-1109	Anselm of Canterbury	Applied the dialectic as a method to the Christian doctrine of God. led the ontological proof of God Acquainted with Augustine's Credo ut intelligam (I believe to understand).	1066 William the Conqueror wins at Hastings and is crowned King of England.
1050-1120	Roscelinus	Radical nominalist Led it into a tritheism from	1074 Order of celibacy by Pope Gregory VII. 1077 walk to Canossa
† 1121	William of Champeaux	Realist in the universality dispute that prevailed against Roscelin. Founder of the Saint-Victor Monastery	1096-1099 First crusade with the conquest of Jerusalem
† after 1124	Bernhard of Chartres	Was strongly influenced by Platonism . Universals are like Platonic ideas	around 1100 foundation of the University of Bologna
12th century	Bernardus Silvestris	Cosmographia , poem about the creation of the world with references to Timaeus also Chartres , but not identical to Bernhard von Chartres	1119 Foundation of the Knights Templar
1079-1142	Peter Abelard	Most important early scholastic philosopher Mediated in the universality dispute with conceptualism Developed the scholastic method continued (sic et non) Sensation as a confused idea is processed into concepts and judgments by the mind. Wrote about peace between religions and developed an ethic of conviction (morality is in the inner decision.) Had a famous relationship with Heloisa
1080-1145	Gilbert of Poitiers	Representative of realism in the universal dispute Conceptual difference between God and Deity as well as individuality and singularity	1122 Worms Concordat ends investiture dispute
1097-1147	Hugo of St. Viktor	Association of mysticism with nature research Three ways of knowing: 1. outer world in reason (cogitatio), 2. inner world in sensations (meditatio), 3. God in faith (contemplatio)	around 1125 invention of the pencil
† after 1150	William of Conches	Strongly physically shaped worldview	1138-1152 Conrad III. first Staufer
died 1151	Thierry of Chartres	Modern interpretation of the creation story	1152–1190 Friedrich I, Barbarossa
1090-1160	Adelard of Bath	While studying in Spain, he recognized the superiority of the Arabic sciences Translated Arabic texts and disseminated their knowledge in mathematics, medicine and astronomy
1100-1160	Petrus Lombardus	Wrote the sentences that have long been valid as a textbook.	1147–1149 Second crusade fails
around 1100–1160	Hermann of Carinthia	Philosopher, astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, translator and author	1154–1189 Henry II of England
1115-1180	John of Salisbury	Conceptualist, secretary to Thomas Becket State theory with the duty of morality and virtue for state representatives	1170 assassination of Thomas Becket Storm surge devastates the Netherlands
1120-1202	Alanus from Insulis	Outlined an axiomatic theology based on the unity of the One.	1189–1192 Third Crusade, Barbarossa drowns in the Saleph
at 1130-1202	Joachim of Fiore	Allegorical scriptural interpretation . History is structured that of the Trinity
Jewish philosophy In the Middle Ages, Jewish philosophy developed a strong affinity to Aristotelianism, similar to the Arab thinkers .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1020-1068	Gabirol	The divine will is the source of life
1100-1189	Abraham ibn Daud	Chronicler, Aristotelian and astronomer
1135-1204	Maimonides	Those who doubt should find faith through reason. Virtue ethics
1288-1344	Levi ben Gershon	Averroist
High school High scholasticism became the prime of Aristotelianism. Compared with Augustine's rejection of the natural sciences and the strongly subordinate role of reason , there was now a further opening and liberalization. There were more and more individual thinkers who demanded the exploration of nature through experiments, because this was the only way to gain real new knowledge. However, resistance also arose in the church . Critical reason that was too open, referring to Aristotle, was banned as averroism .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1170-1253	Robert Grosseteste	Answer scientific questions	1182–1226 Francis of Assisi 1190 Foundation of the Teutonic Order around 1200 foundation of the University of Cambridge
1170-1245	Alexander of Hales	Formerly an Aristotelian Wrote Quaestiones according to the scholastic method	1204 Fourth crusade with the conquest of Constantinople Byzantine Empire
presumably 1175-1245	Alfred of Sareshel	early Aristotelianism ; The heart is the house of the soul , which is the entelechy of the body.
1221-1274	Bonaventure	Emphasized enlightenment from God Contemplation is the highest level of following Christ	1206 Genghis Khan unites the Mongols
1200-1280	Albertus Magnus	Impressed by extensive scientific knowledge One of the first to teach Aristotle The “natural light” (lumen naturale) of the knowledge of philosophy is in harmony with the revelation, which is more comprehensive.	1207 Singers' dispute at the Wartburg around 1210 Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach
1225-1274	Thomas Aquinas	Science and reason in harmony Truth = adaequatio rei et intellectus Revelation doctrine takes precedence ( sacraments , last judgment, virgin birth ) God as originator (causa effiziens) and end purpose (causa finalis) Cardinal virtues Immortality of the soul, which is both pure spirit and entelechy of the body. According to the divine plan, the purpose of the state is to realize virtue under natural law (lex naturalis).	1212 Children's Crusade 1215 Magna Carta 1218 Jade Bay is created by storm surge 1228/29 Fifth Crusade Frederick II King of Jerusalem
† 1284	Siger of Brabant	Averroist Wanted to teach Aristotle without revelation	1273–1291 Rudolf I of Habsburg Expulsion of the Jews from England around 1290
† 1286	Boetius of Dacien	also Averroist
† 1290	Wilhelm de la Mare	"Correctorium" as a Franciscan criticism of Thomas
1214-1294	Roger Bacon	Formerly Emprist with practical experiments Turned against prejudice, habit and lack of self-criticism. Theological authority is only God's will.	1282 Edward I conquered Wales
1226-1277	Petrus Hispanus	Compendium of Logic	1291 Acre falls to the Mameluks
1217-1293	Heinrich of Ghent	Wanted to go back to Augustine against Thomas's intellectualism	1298 travelogues of Marco Polo
1243-1316	Aegidius Romanus	Compiled catalog of 95 false teachings of the philosophers that led to the Paris convictions .	around 1294 foundation of the Hanseatic League 1307 Rütli oath
Late scholasticism In late scholasticism the pendulum swung again. Many thinkers now recognized that a doctrine of faith based purely on logic and reason was no longer tenable and called for the separation of faith and reason. Education spread more and more through the progressive establishment of new universities and gradually passed over to bourgeois circles who no longer earned their living within the framework of church institutions.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
before 1250 until after 1305	Gottfried von Fontaines	Aristotelian in universality dispute
1250-1320	Dietrich von Freiberg	Advocated the principle of coherence criticized various positions of Thomism thematized the difference between intellectus agens and intellectus possibilis difference in the four-element theory between a mere mixture (confusio) and a connection (mixtio) Researched the principle of the rainbow
1266-1308	John Duns Scotus	Antagonist of Thomas (logician and mathematician) Will takes precedence over reason. The good is determined by the will and is higher than the true First steps to the separation of theology and philosophy: Neither the temporal beginning of the world nor the immortality of the soul can be proven.	1303 Philip IV appoints Pope Boniface VIII to break his claim to world domination (beginning of secularization in France)
1265-1321	Dante Alighieri	Drafted a state concept that was independent of the Church	1309 Pope Clement V moves his residence to Avignon
1274 or 1275 – after 1344	Walter Burley	Opponent of the nominalism of Wilhelm von Ockham
around 1275 or 1290–1342 or 1343	Marsilius of Padua	State theorist, politician and an important representative of scholastic Aristotelianism	around 1310 general cold snap leads to famine in Europe and Asia and to population declines
1280-1347	William of Ockham	Occam's razor Contributions to logic and the philosophy of language Terms are not images, but only signs (nominalism or terminism) Demanded separation of church and state and therefore had to flee to Munich.	around 1328 Invention of the sawmill 1328–1589 House of Valois in France 1339–1453 Hundred Years War
around 1280-1322	Petrus Aureoli	Took a conceptualism and positions similar to Scotus and Ockham
around 1285 / 1289-1328	Johann von Jandun	Averroistic philosopher, theologian and political theorist
around 1300 bs after 1350	Nicolaus from Autrecourt	Critique of the concept of substance and the traditional theory of causality	1341 first mention of a Cologne carnival procession
1300-1358	Johannes Buridan	Dealt with free will ( Buridan's donkey )	1348 Foundation of the University of Prague 1348-1350 plague
1316-1390	Albert von Rickmersdorf	Rector of the University of Vienna	1356 Golden Bull by Emperor Charles IV.
1330-1382	Nicholas of Oresme	Believed a heliocentric view of the world to be possible	1381 English peasant uprising
1335-1396	Marsilius of Inghen	Co-founder of Heidelberg University	1396 Turks defeat Crusaders in the Battle of Nicopolis
presumably –1420	William Penbygull	Follower of Wycliffs, universal realist
1340-1420	Pierre d'Ailly	As a skeptic, taught the primacy of the will.	around 1400 rise of the Medici family
around 1385-1436	Raimundus Sabundus	Philosopher and theologian "Two-book metaphor" Theologia naturalis seu liber creaturarum. (1436)
Medieval mysticism Like other times, the Middle Ages were always accompanied by mystical thinking , by the conviction that true fulfillment can only be achieved in contemplation and in immediate faith .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1090-1153	Bernhard of Clairvaux	The real virtue of the Christian is humility Abelard's opponent
1098-1179	Hildegard von Bingen	General rules of life and medical texts
1135-1202	Joachim of Fiore	Expected the Last Judgment around 1260
† 1206	Amalrich of Bena	God lives in all creatures ( pantheism ) had to revoke in 1204
1232-1316	Raimundus Lullus	Averroist Magic truth disc made of combinations of terms
1250 / 1260-1310	Margareta Porete
1260-1328	Master Eckhart	Reason without contemplation is not perfect
1295-1366	Heinrich Seuse
1300-1366	Johannes Tauler
Renaissance and Reformation 1400–1600 The philosophy of the Renaissance and humanism, and with it the studia humanitatis, was still very much connected to medieval traditions in its working method , so it worked speculatively and text-based, but it opened up more and more to existing scientific questions and methods , which then became the dominant theme of philosophy of modern times. This epoch is also referred to as Renaissance humanism . Renaissance means rebirth. The period is so named because the texts of the ancient Greek and Roman philosophers were received anew and at the same time a detachment from the medieval schools of scholasticism took place.
Poet and artist In a time of ever growing cities in Italy that became more and more independent of the Church , it was above all the poets and artists who made use of the free space very early on and developed independent perspectives on the world.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1305-1374	Francesco Petrarch	Opponent of Scholasticism and Aristotelianism
1313-1375	Boccaccio	Founder of the Italian novella
1452-1519	Leonardo da Vinci	Artist, architect, technician and anatomist
1475-1564	Michelangelo	Outstanding painter and sculptor
humanism The humanists proceeded from the general principle of the universal exemplary nature of antiquity. The concept of humanity ( humanitas ) , which goes back to Cicero, was characteristic of the movement . This was pursued through the study of ancient knowledge ( studia humanitatis ), the special care of the language and an emphasis on aesthetics .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1380-1449	Poggio Bracciolini	One of the most important humanists and pioneers of the Italian Renaissance; who rediscovered some of the most important works of antiquity
1369-1444	Leonardo Bruni	Republican Chancellor in Florence	1361 Turks conquer Adrianople
1396-1459	Giannozzo Manetti	Translation of Aristotle Important work; the treatise De dignitate et excellentia hominis (1452) The human being is described in his physicality - anatomically correct - as perfect, just like the human soul The idea of ​​a “misery of man” (miseria hominis) is rejected	1389 Battle of the Amselfeld Serbia becomes Turkish.
approx. 1406-1457	Lorenzo Valla	Italian humanist with an Epicurean orientation, rhetorician Investigation of the Freedom of Human Will For a positive evaluation of pleasure	1410 Battle of Tannenberg
1444-1485	Rudolf Agricola	Wrote about the dialectical thought method	1431 Joan of Arc was burned
around 1450-1536	Faber stapulensis	First French translation of the Bible
1454-1494	Angelo Poliziano	Taught Greek and Latin literature in Florence	1453 End of the Hundred Years War
1455-1522	Johannes Reuchlin	Hebraist He went against the current for tolerance towards the Jews .	1453 Conquest of Byzantium by Mehmed II.
1459-1508	Conrad Celtis	Poet, cartographer and historiographer	1485 Henry VII , first Tudor king
1461-1535	Ulrich Zasius	Representative of a humanistic jurisprudence	1492 Grenada surrendered
1466-1536	Erasmus from Rotterdam	Augustinians critical of the church , but against the church division Opponent of Luther on the question of free will For religious tolerance and the ostracism of nationalism and war.	1495 Reichstag in Worms ( Eternal Peace , Reich Chamber Court ) 1517 Selim I conquered Egypt
1486-1535	Agrippa from Nettesheim	Science as "holy magic" (versus magicians) in God all ideas are present ( Neoplatonism )
1492-1540	Juan Luis Vives	early educational writings
1497-1560	Philipp Melanchthon	Association thoughts of the Reformation with the philosophy of Aristotle	1529 First Turkish siege of Vienna
1515-1563	Sebastian Castellio	Adversary of Calvin Formerly a representative of rationalism, reason placed above dogma; for example the Lord's Supper is interpreted purely symbolically	Étienne Dolet was executed on August 3, 1546 on Place Maubert in Paris.
1517-1572	Peter Ramus	Wanted to develop a new logic Was murdered on St. Bartholomew's Night	1556 The Habsburgs split into a Spanish and an Austrian part
1547-1606	Justus Lipsius	Extensive correspondence and a. with Montaigne Taught philosophy related to stoicism
1533-1592	Michel de Montaigne	Founder of essay writing Humanist and skeptic	1581 Union of Utrecht 1562–1598 Huguenot Wars
Philosophers The philosophy of the Renaissance shifted to Platonism , especially in the republican environment of the Medici , after previously unknown writings had reached Italy as a result of the fall of Constantinople . The focus was less on topics of metaphysics , but on questions of ethics ( tolerance , freedom ) and political philosophy ( popular sovereignty , international law ).
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1355-1450	Georgios Gemistos plethon	Came from Byzantium and translated Plato Encouraged the Medici to re-establish the academy.
1394-1476	John Fortescue	The king's authority is based on public approval and not on God's grace	End of the Hundred Years War 1453
1395-1472 / 1484	George of Trebizond	Defender of the philosophy of Aristotle
1401-1464	Nikolaus von Kues	The mathematization of the objects of experience are human interpretations. God as the unity of space-time infinity Coincidence of opposites in reason
1403-1472	Bessarion	Byzantines and Platonists Founded an important library
1433-1499	Marsilio Ficino	First head of the new academy in Florence	The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453
1462-1524	Pietro Pomponazzi	Wanted Aristotle without Thomism and Averroism Rejected immortality of the soul .
1463-1494	Giovanni Pico della Mirandola	Stood up for human dignity . His 900 theses were banned by the Pope.
1469-1527	Niccolò Machiavelli	Political rule is not to be judged from moral, but from useful aspects The three state purposes of the republic are freedom of citizens, size and common good
1473-1538	Agostino Nifo	translated the works of Averroes , well-read Aristotelian	Hernán Cortés defeated the Aztecs in 1521 and became Governor General of New Spain .
1478-1535	Thomas More	Wrote a utopia about the best constitution of the community without private property , with education for all and religious freedom
1498-1576	Mario Nizolio	defended Cicero against pseudophilosopher
1506-1582	George Buchanan	Popular sovereignty includes the right to resist	Elizabeth I was enthroned in 1558, Elizabethan era Start of construction on St. Peter's Basilica in Rome from 1502 to 1626.
1529-1597	Francesco Patrizi	Critic of Aristotelianism	1521 Magellan dies on the first circumnavigation of the world
1530-1596	Jean Bodin	In natural law , the people alone are sovereign	The Huguenot Wars in France from 1562 to 1598.
1533-1589	Jacopo Zabarella	Methodology and logic
1541-1603	Pierre Charron	Wrote a well-known moral philosophical work	Council of Trent from 1562 to 1563 1563 Start of construction of the Escorial in Madrid by Philip II.
1548-1617	Francisco Suarez	Late scholastics But represented the freedom of the individual and the idea of ​​the state treaty	The circumnavigation of Francis Drake (The Famous Voyage) 1577-1580
1583-1640	Uriel da Costa	Jewish critic of Judaism formerly representative of a deism
1585-1619	Lucilio Vanini	was burned as a heretic in Paris	Spanish Armada under Alonso Pérez de Guzmán set out for England in 1588
reformation The discussion about its need for reform triggered by the encrustation of the church in scholasticism led to the Reformation under the heading “Back to Scripture”. Religious rites such as pilgrimages , mortifications, etc. The like were rejected as well as letters of indulgence and purchase of offices . What counted was the word through which man finds God. This was the motive for the powerful translation of the Bible .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1330-1384	John Wycliffe	Denied the Pope's claim to political power	1377 Pope Gregory XI. moves the residence back to Rome 1378 double pope and "great occidental schism "
1369-1415	Jan Hus	The Bible is the only authority Established the Hussite movement	1415–1436 Hussite Wars
1483-1556	Martin Luther	Is considered the spiritual father of the Reformation Against indulgences , buying offices , pilgrimages and mortifications But the faith , Scripture Alone, alone, grace	1414–1418 Council of Constance ends the schism 1524–1526 German Peasants' War
1484-1531	Ulrich Zwingli	Turned with Luther against indulgences and with Erasmus against the war.	1484 Pope's bull on the persecution of witches
1493-1573	Johann Pfeffinger	In 1539 he gave the first evangelical sermon in the Nikolaikirche in Leipzig. Dissolved the Synergistic dispute from
1499-1560	John a Lasco	Friesland reformer from Poland	1525 Ordensstaat the German Order is to Prussia converted. 1540 Foundation of the Jesuit order
1509-1564	John Calvin	Drafted the Geneva catechism and a church order with strict church discipline	1607 Protestants settle in Ulster First Huguenot War (1562–1563)
Natural scientist The transition into the new era is also very clearly shown by the Italian natural philosophers, who had to show considerable courage because they were repeatedly exposed to the danger that their new knowledge would be rejected by the Church and that the Inquisition persecuted them. Step by step, they achieved through high personal sacrifices that the results of empirical research could not be denied.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1473-1543	Nicolaus Copernicus	Heliocentric view of the world based on observations	1487/88 Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope
1493-1541	Paracelsus	Criticized conventional medicine Formulated the doctrine of signatures for locating drug carriers Used alchemical techniques for the extraction of active ingredients Developed pharmaceutical knowledge ( laudanum )	1492 Columbus discovered America
1501-1576	Gerolamo Cardano	Invented the cardan joint as a physician and mathematician	1497–1499 Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India
1509-1588	Bernardino Telesio	Light and warmth are moving forces founded an academy of natural scientists	1499 Amerigo Vespucci explores the east coast of South America
1519-1603	Andrea Cesalpino	Botanist and physiologist	Societas Jesu, SJ founded on August 15, 1534 by a group of friends around Íñigo López de Loyola
1548-1600	Giordano Bruno	Died at the stake for pantheism by the Inquisition Proclaimed the infinity of the universe as a system of countless transitory worlds and God as the source of eternal change God is the life principle of every single thing, the greatest and the smallest Theory of monads	1543 Spain founds the viceroyalty of Peru
1564-1642	Galileo Galilei	Laws of fall as the starting point of mechanics The book of nature is written in the language of mathematics . Systematic experiment through interventions in nature true knowledge of nature is quantitative	1602 Foundation of the Dutch East India Company
1568-1639	Tommaso Campanella	Utopia: The Sun State Spent 27 years in prison under the Inquisition all knowledge is perception (sensualism) all knowledge of the world has its origin in self-knowledge
1571-1630	Johannes Kepler	Confirmed Copernicus mathematically
1592-1655	Pierre Gassendi	As an astronomer, confirmed Kepler's calculations As an atomist, he dealt philosophically with Aristotle and Epicurus	Robert Boyle (1627–1692) developed a modern concept of element and called for a systematic natural science based on exact experiments
Early modern period 1600–1800 The philosophy of the Baroque and Enlightenment ( 17th and 18th centuries ) is a section of the history of philosophy that was determined on the one hand by the new scientific worldview and the associated mathematical methods (analytical geometry , analysis ); on the other hand, the pursuit of freedom and civil rights drove upheavals that culminated in the French Revolution . The approach of rationalism , which placed the subject and reason in the foreground, was in conflict with that of empiricism , which in its philosophical explanation of the world only accepted hypotheses that can be traced back to sensory perception .
rationalism The rationalism (from the Latin ratio - reason ) is an assumption according to which the mind the objective structure of reality can be seen, both by physical, metaphysical and the moral sphere.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1596-1650	René Descartes	Systematic doubt does not suppress the certainty of one's own consciousness ( Cogito ergo sum ) there are evident representations (innate ideas), especially the existence of God (own proof of God) and the truths of mathematics establishes a dualistic worldview with the opposition of extended matter (res extensa) and spirit (res cogitans) Also important as a mathematician ( analytical geometry ) and scientific theorist	March 20, 1602 Foundation of the Dutch East India Company 1618 Prague lintel 1618–1648 Thirty Years War 1630 Sweden enters the war.
1623-1662	Blaise Pascal	Mathematician (probability calculation , Pascal's triangle ), natural scientist (vacuum) and man of letters invented a calculating machine, the Pascaline took a provincial position with the Lettres in favor of the Jansenists Pensées are personal thoughts about suffering and belief	1634 murder of Wallenstein
1632-1677	Baruch de Spinoza	Founder of modern biblical criticism The knowledge of God through reason takes precedence over revelation (Bible) metaphysics A substance is the origin of all being ( monism ) That one substance is God All being has a share in this substance ( pantheism ) Every physical process has a mental counterpart and vice versa (parallelism of body and mind) Epistemology Only adequate ideas lead to true knowledge Only ideas related to God can be adequate ethics Reason education (only this provides adequate ideas) Striving for adequate ideas Self-determination through adequate actions There is no such thing as absolute freedom Freedom rather means acting out of adequate causes and ideas Political philosophy In the natural state everything strives to maintain its being A state community increases the chance of self-preservation The state also strives for self-preservation However, this is only guaranteed if there is reasonable governance (in the interests of the citizens)	1648 Peace of Westphalia 1648 recognition of the Netherlands
1646-1716	Leibniz	The smallest unit of all things are the monads A monad is the power point of a substance Mechanistic worldview Pre-stabilized universal harmony The world is the best possible of all worlds God as the most perfect being, as the infinite whole ( infinitesimal ) of the world Proof of God according to which everything that is perfect must also exist Justification of evil in the world ( theodicy ) The criterion for human action must be God's will Significantly further develops mathematical logic Discoverer of calculus (at the same time as Isaac Newton )	Robert Hooke (1635–1703) designed an air pump to prove the vacuum; for him matter is made up of invisibly small, vibrating particles
Occasionalism The occasionalism (occasio of latin, opportunity, opportunity) represented the central thesis is that body and mind no causal influence on each other, but by God are taught.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1625-1699	Arnold Geulincx	God is "occasionally" active in every action he combines rationalism and mysticism he denies any causal or causal connection between body and mind	1648-1653 Fronde
1626-1684	Géraud de Cordemoy	physiologist Cartesian and Occasionalist Representative of atomism with great influence on the French philosophers of materialism	Salem witch trials (Salem witch trials) in 1692 in New England
1638-1715	Nicolas Malebranche	The interplay of body and soul is brought about by God
Other philosophers
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1557-1638	Johannes Althusius	The state is based on a social contract . The people are politically and religiously autonomous.
1575-1624	Jakob Boehme	Mystic : God as life, strength and will The world is like a tree, from the root to the blossom permeated with the sap of the One. Supported the idea of free will and personal freedom .
1583-1645	Hugo Grotius	Founder of international law inalienable right to the person
Baptized 1624 -1677	Angelus Silesius	Mystic known for his epigrams
1632-1694	Samuel von Pufendorf	Legal philosopher , emphasized human dignity drafted an ethic of duty	Johann Joachim Becher (1635–1682) studied combustion processes and developed the theory of the phlogiston
1668-1744	Giambattista Vico	History philosopher	Georg Ernst Stahl (1659–1734) experimented with chemical compounds and expanded the phlogiston theory
British and Scottish empiricism The empiricism ( Greek εμπειρισμός, experience) is an epistemological direction in philosophy and psychology , all knowledge of sensory experiences derived. As logical empiricism and constructive empiricism, it works right up to contemporary philosophy .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1561-1626	Francis Bacon	Knowledge is power Requested scientific research (ars inveniendi) Induction as progress from the concrete to the general Wrote the utopia: New Atlantis	1599-1658 Oliver Cromwell
1588-1679	Thomas Hobbes	All knowledge of nature is based on geometry Philosophy is the study of the movement of the body State philosophy In the natural state there is a struggle of all against all ( bellum omnium contra omnes ) There are no natural rights that regulate togetherness ( homo homini lupus est ) The safety of the individual is permanently at risk That is why people conclude a (non-terminable) social contract The aim is to create public order Individual freedom is restricted in favor of security The exercise of state authority is transferred to a sovereign The power of the sovereign is absolute and undivided ( absolutist state theory ) Resistance is only legitimate if the right of self-assertion of the individual or the people is at risk The sovereign receives his legitimation from the people and no longer from God	1642–1649 English Civil War 1660 Stuart Restoration of the Monarchy
1611-1677	James Harrington	Political philosopher Utopia: The commonwealth of Oceana
1632-1704	John Locke	The question about the ultimate reason for being cannot be answered empiricism Consciousness is a tabula rasa at birth "Nothing is in the mind that has not previously been in the senses" ( sensualism ) The mind processes the sensory perceptions further Mechanistic worldview State philosophy Private property , freedom and life are natural rights given by God Everyone is on their own to enforce these rights The state of nature is therefore a legal area without legal equality and legal security To create legal equality and security, people conclude a social contract The task of enforcing natural rights is delegated to the political community (state) in trust The highest body is the legislature (the government), it represents the people and controls the executive , the monarch ( constitutional monarchy ) The legislature is deductible if it breaks the social contract The people are thus sovereign , the ruler receives his legitimation from the people and is no longer ruler by God's grace Made a significant impact on the United States Constitution	1679 Habeas Corpus Act 1688 Glorious Revolution 1689 Bill of Rights 1686 Newton's law of gravitation was formulated in his work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
1685-1753	George Berkeley	Empiricist and idealist To be is to be perceived (esse est percipi) The world is a phenomenon of human consciousness	1707 Realunion of England and Scotland
1694-1746	Francis Hutcheson	Empiricist and economist who put morality in the foreground.	1757 Battle of Plassey - beginning of British colonial rule in India
1711-1776	David Hume	Empiricist with skepticism Causal Analysis: Examines the nature of causal relationships and human understanding of them Induction problem: Problematizes inductive inferences from experience Religious critic and economist	1759/60 England conquered Quebec and Montreal 1773 Boston Tea Party
1723-1790	Adam Smith	Not just an important economist and liberal state theorist but also a moralist who invented the external observer.	1783 Peace of Paris ends American War of Independence 1759–1806 William Pitt the Younger
Cambridge Platonists
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1614-1687	Henry More	Correspondence with Descartes Criticized a mechanistic worldview , materialism and atheism the spirit also has spatial expansion in its own sphere the space is absolute, homogeneous, immaterial and infinite Demand for rational comprehensibility of beliefs and rejection of religious dogmatism The basic ethical principles are innate in humans and comparable to mathematical axioms. taught the pre-existence of the soul	English Civil War from 1642 to 1649 between King Charles I (" Cavaliers ") against the English Parliament (" Roundheads ")
1617-1688	Ralph Cudworth	Criticized atheism and determinism, including the Calvinist doctrine of "double predestination " Assumed the independence of the intellect from sensory perception
More British scouts
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1643-1727	Isaac Newton	Outstanding scientist, main work: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica With Newton's laws he created a new theory of motion with gravity as the basis of classical mechanics gave an explanation of the light spectrum in the field of optics and advocated a particle theory of light against Huygens Against Leibniz he advocated a theory of absolute space and absolute time developed the calculus parallel to Leibniz criticized the rationalism of Descartes and Leibniz in the successor of Galileo strongly advocated the experimental, inductive method and turned against a speculative philosophy ("I do not form hypotheses") formulated as rules of philosophizing simplicity, recognition of causality, derivation of theorems from experience and proof of regularities through experiments Natural phenomena can be traced back to mathematical laws Criticized the doctrine of the Trinity and took the view that God is present as a spiritual principle in the interaction of all bodies if he wants this.
1671-1713	Lord Shaftesbury	Wrote about freedom and morality Turned against Hobbes' selfishness	Act of Union 1707 Unification of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland Small ice age cold periods with several temperature minima, from around 1675 to 1715
1675-1729	Samuel Clarke	tried to re-establish natural theology and morality turned against pantheism as well as skepticism quarreled with Leibniz in famous letters about the atheism charge against Newton
1678-1751	Lord Bolingbroke	Hosted Voltaire in exile	Thomas Newcomen constructed the first usable steam engine in 1712
1721-1793	William Robertson	Scottish historian and social ethicist of the Scottish Enlightenment .
1723-1816	Adam Ferguson	Scottish historian and social ethicist of the Enlightenment Co-founder of the scientific discipline sociology
1728-1777	Thomas Reid	Founder of the Scottish School Common Sense Philosophy as a Critique of Hume
1729-1797	Edmund Burke	Anti-scout Hierarchy in the state is given by nature and by God.
1737-1794	Edward Gibbon	historian The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
French scouts The Age of Enlightenment is an epoch in the intellectual development of Western society in the 17th to 18th centuries , which is particularly characterized by the endeavor to use reason to free thought from traditional, rigid and outdated ideas, prejudices and ideologies and to create acceptance for newly acquired knowledge. It is the movement of secularization and a move away from the absolutist to a democratic conception of the state. The liberalism with its concept of human and civil rights came up. Enlightenment in the sense of a rule of reason took place as early as the 17th century. Enlightenment as bourgeois emancipation stretches from around 1730 to 1800. This period was mainly determined by the discussions about the encyclopédie in France, which was banned several times ("le siècle des lumières": the age of lights). Politically, it culminated in the French Revolution . French early reconnaissance As early Enlightenment refers to the early stages of enlightenment , in which the ideas of the Enlightenment was primarily spread through secret and anonymous texts and orally in the exclusive "cercles de pensées". One of their most radical representatives in France was the atheist pastor Jean Meslier.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1612-1694	Arnauld	Representative of Jansenism in Port Royal wrote about the influence of grammar on sound formation with Pierre Nicole author of the logic of Port-Royal	1661 Louis XIV takes over the government himself War of devolution from 1667 to 1668
1612-1694	Meslier	Catholic priest, (curé; abbé ) took a consistently materialistic, atheistic point of view he wrote a radical criticism of the church and religion
1647-1706	Bayle	Huguenot early bird, explored Halley's Comet demanded freedom of conscience and tolerance in religion Dictionnaire historique et critique	1618–1693 Colbert , the "inventor" of mercantilism 1766 Lorraine becomes part of France
1657-1757	de Fontenelle	Early enlightenment and writer remained attached to Cartesian physics, even after it was overtaken by the work of Isaac Newton In 1752 he represented in his Théorie des tourbillons cartésiens the vertebral theory of Descartes from 1644	Dutch-French War from 1672 to 1678
1689-1755	Montesquieu	History philosopher and state theorist With the idea of ​​the separation of powers provided an important basis for the American constitution	Étienne François Geoffroy (1672–1731) published tables of chemical affinities in 1718, with which substances are classified according to their relative bond strength
French enlighteners and encyclopedists The 144 contributors to the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers are called the encyclopedists . But not all French enlighteners were encyclopedists .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1694-1778	Voltaire	Critic of absolutism, the clergy and feudal rule Encyclopedist	1673–1678 Dutch War Lisbon earthquake 1755
1698-1759	Maupertuis	Discovered the principle of the smallest effect	War against the League of Augsburg 1688–1697 War of the Spanish Succession 1701–1713
1706-1749	Émilie du Châtelet	Mathematician and physicist Translated Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica into French, using Leibniz's notation Wrote an introduction to Principia Mathematica with Voltaire Worked with Willem Jacob's Gravesande on kinetic energy , propping up Leibniz's position against Newton Influenced Maupertuis and de La Mettrie with their considerations on movement, free will, as well as thinking matter, numbers and the path to a substantial metaphysics Her work Institutions of Physics partially served as the basis for the Encyclopédie in the field of physics Like Voltaire, rejected revealed religions Demanded the participation of women in all human rights
1709-1751	La Mettrie	Materialist, atheist and critic of religion The soul is a body function Feelings of guilt (“remords”) are an instinct for people Encountered by French scouts (FA Lange: "whipping boy")
1712-1778	Rousseau	Educational and state philosopher Encyclopedist Pioneer of the French Revolution Man is naturally good Peaceful state of nature based on freedom and equality of all Alienation and deterioration of the state of nature, etc. a. through the creation of private property Social contract ( contrat social ) abolishes this alienation (back to nature) Volonté générale (general will) as a regulatory element is the main part of the contract Model of a radical democracy	Louis XIV. Louis le Grand dies on September 1, 1715
1713-1784	Diderot	Co-editor of the Encyclopédie The cognitive process as an interaction between observation , combined reflection and experiment The sensibilité universal is inherent in matter and enables the transition from the inorganic, dead to the organic, living state Materialist Encyclopedist	Reign of Philippe II d'Orléans from 1715 to 1723 ( Régence ) Louis XV takes over the government of France in 1726 Louis Antoine de Bougainville's circumnavigation of the world 1766–1769
1715-1771	Helvétius	Sensualist and materialist	1717–1780 Maria Theresa The doctor, pharmacist, chemist Gabriel-François Venel (1723–1775) provides 673 articles in the Encyclopédie on the subjects of chemistry, pharmacy, physiology and medicine
1715-1780	Condillac	Sensualist like John Locke Difference between natural signs and artificial signs (language and writing)	Catherine the Great 1729–1796 Seven Years War 1756–1763
1717-1783	d'Alembert	Mathematician and physicist Associate Editor of the Encyclopédie, Encyclopedia	Early form of the Rococo (Regence) from 1715 to 1730 France buys Corsica from the Republic of Genoa in 1768
1723-1789	d'Holbach	Materialist who saw religion as the greatest enemy of morality. Staff of the Encyclopédie . Most important work Système de la nature ou des loix du monde physique & du monde moral (1770)	1789 French Revolution
1735-1820	Robinet	Sensualist Encyclopedist	Rococo flowering from 1730 to 1770 1793 execution of Louis XVI.
1740-1814	de Sade	radicalized French materialism into amoralism
1743-1794	Condorcet	Liberal encyclopedist Shed his title of nobility. He advocated women's suffrage, the abolition of slavery and free trade	Robespierre's terror regime 1794 Napoleon becomes Commander-in-Chief of the French Armed Forces in 1796
1748-1836	Sieyes	Representatives of the third estate contributed significantly to the new constitution represented a representative democracy enforced the separation of church and state
1760-1797	Babeuf	Idea generator of early socialism Critic of the Board of Directors and founder of the Conspiracy of Equals	France declares war on Prussia and Austria in 1792
German scouts As a successor to Leibniz, the German Enlightenment was shaped by rationalism and the Wolffian school that originated from Christian Wolff . Originally standing in this tradition himself, Immanuel Kant became a warning, who in his three criticisms referred to the limits of reason. By abolishing speculative metaphysics and inquiring about the conditions of the possibility of knowledge, he gave Western philosophy a new direction of thought.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1632-1694	Samuel von Pufendorf	Natural law philosopher, historian as well as natural and international law teacher at the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment Advocacy of a uniform international law Influences the natural rights activists Christian Thomasius, Christian Wolff and Karl Anton von Martini	Thirty Years' War from 1618 to 1648, peace agreement in the Peace Congress of Münster and Osnabrück 1641–1648
1655-1728	Christian Thomasius	Co-initiator of the German reconnaissance As the first philosopher to give lectures in German	1701 Friedrich III. of Brandenburg becomes Friedrich I of Prussia the 15-year-old maid Dorothee Elisabeth Tretschlaff was the last victim of the witch hunt in Brandenburg on February 17, 1701
1679-1754	Christian Wolff	rationalistic doctrine prevalent in Germany in the 18th century (further developed in exchange with Leibniz) Created basic terms such as "meaning", "attention", "in itself"	1703 Saint Petersburg founded - Peter the Great
1700-1766	Johann Christoph Gottsched	Pupil of Wolff Translated Bayle's Lexicon	1713–1740 Friedrich Wilhelm I , the soldier king
1712-1775	Christian August Crusius	Opponent of Wollfs Differentiation of knowledge ground and real ground	1740–1786 Friedrich II. , The old Fritz or Friedrich the Great
1714-1762	Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten	Founder of aesthetics (within the framework of Wolff's systematics) Wrote the textbook Kant used to teach.	1756–1763 Seven Years' War
1724-1804	Immanuel Kant	Complete the Enlightenment Critique of Pure Reason What can i know Determination of the limits of human knowledge Synthesis of empiricism and rationalism The " thing in itself " is not recognizable for humans Transcendental idealism Copernican turn Critique of Practical Reason What should I do? Categorical imperative Reason and duty ethics Critique of Judgement Mediation between nature and freedom teleology aesthetics History, politics, religion What can I hope for? Religion within the limits of bare reason (positive religion is "after service") On Eternal Peace (Philosophical draft on the question of peace between states in the form of a peace treaty) Idea for a general story with cosmopolitan intent (the aim of living together is a bourgeois republic)	1772 first partition of Poland On April 4, 1775 , Anna Schwegelin was tried as the last witch on today's German soil for being the last witch in the prince monastery of Kempten .
1753-1807	Christian Jakob Kraus	Philosopher and economist in the late Enlightenment Important representative of a liberal intellectual current and with regard to Prussian conditions with a radical basic attitude. Under the influence of Immanuel Kant and Johann Georg Hamann
1728-1777	Johann Heinrich Lambert	Mathematician and epistemologist Was in regular correspondence with Kant.
1729-1781	Lessing	Writer who campaigned for tolerance of religions Gave important impulses in aesthetics
1729-1786	Moses Mendelssohn	Worked for the connection of religions Friend of Lessing
1736-1805	Johannes Nikolaus Tetens	Proximity to Leibniz and Wolff	1786–1797 Friedrich Wilhelm II.
1742-1798	Christian Garve	Popular philosopher and empiricist Anonymous, mutilating review of the "Critique of Pure Reason"	1797–1840 Friedrich Wilhelm III.
Spanish or Hispanic American Enlightenment
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1676-1764	Benito Jerónimo Feijoo	As a forerunner of the Enlightenment, promoted scientific thinking in Spain. Tried to refute superstitions and popular beliefs.
1725-1803	Pablo de Olavide	Afrancesado , had strong ties to the ideas of the French Enlightenment philanthropist Later work El Evangelio en triunfo o historia de un filósofo desengañado (1797) is an apology of Christianity	War of the Polish Succession (1733-1738)
1723-1802	Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes	Translated works by Adam Smith	War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748)
1747-1795	Eugenio Espejo	connects the ideas of the Enlightenment with the social and cultural reality of colonial Quito . the ideal of equality between indigenous people , mestizos and European colonialists occurs	Redistribution of the Hispano-American provinces from 1782 to 1786 under Charles III. from Spain
Russian scouts Prosveščenie or Enlightenment received from the second half of the 18th century in the Russian tsarist empire, especially under the influence of Catherine II as a representative of an enlightened absolutism , the meaning for central terms such as education , European civilization , emancipation of the human intellectual powers , modernization and organization of the Russian state, but also, in a narrower sense, Russia's participation in the European emancipation movement of the Enlightenment .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1749-1802	Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev	Opponent of serfdom Enlightenment ideas (natural law) Opponent of obscurantism	Great Northern War from 1700 to 1721
1711-1765	Mikhail Wassiljewitsch Lomonossow	Poet, scientist and reformer of the Russian language Opponent of the phlogiston theory Coined by Christian Wolff	Russo-Turkish War from 1768 to 1774
1704-1795	Ivan Ivanovich Bezkoi	Creation of the first unified Russian system for public education Close contacts with the encyclopedists , such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot	Pugachev uprising or Russian Peasants' War from 1773 to 1775
19th century The philosophy of the 19th century ranges from romanticism and idealism as one of the high points of German philosophy, through the counter-movement of positivism, which was particularly strong in France and England, the materialism of Marx and Feuerbach and such strong individual thinkers as Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and Kierkegaard towards neo-Kantianism, pragmatism and the philosophy of life. It breaks down into so many different directions that it can no longer be described and summarized with a summarizing term of periods.
romance The romance is as a countermovement to-rational age of enlightenment to understand. With reason and science , feeling, the need for harmony and the longing for an ideal world are neglected. In addition to a keen interest in literature and music , romantics were therefore often strongly religiously oriented.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1730-1788	Johann Georg Hamann	After his conversion he turned against the difference between faith and reason in the Enlightenment Against Kant saw language as a source of knowledge	Novalis (1772-1801)
1743-1819	Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi	Philosophy leads to atheism and fatalism Reason refers to the reception of supernatural things that can only be believed.	Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) William Turner (1775-1851)
1744-1803	Johann Gottfried Herder	Student, admirer and later severe critic of Kant Poet, humanist, theologian and philosopher Gave important impulses for the philosophy of language and the philosophical anthropology	Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) Franz Schubert (1797-1828)
1759-1805	Friedrich Schiller	Professor of history and / or philosophy in Jena first universal history, then art and nature as themes	Robert Schumann (1810-1856) Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849)
1765-1841	Franz von Baader	Tried to overcome the primacy of the subject with the concept of a world soul.
1772-1829	Friedrich Schlegel	Culture and language philosopher Founder of the romantic school	Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781–1841) shaped classicism in Prussia.
1768-1834	Friedrich Schleiermacher	Hegel's opponent at Berlin University Significant impulses for hermeneutics	Ludwig Tieck (1773-1853) ETA Hoffmann (1776-1822) Heinrich Heine (1797-1856)
German idealism The German Idealism is like an exaggeration of romantic ideas and even the period of Romanticism is often attributed (around 1790 to 1850), where neither Hegel nor spruce romanticism are directly attributable. Characteristic of the three outstanding philosophers is the speculative system in which the ego , the absolute or the spirit determines the foundations of the world. The thing in itself is not recognizable as it was with Kant; rather, idealism is interested in letting this 'block' created by Kant disappear from absolute knowledge. The boundaries between belief and knowledge , between being and ought, clearly distinguished by Kant , are understood as unsolved questions that have to be overcome in a system of the spirit . Mind and nature, finite and infinite, subject and object, reason and revelation are to be thought of as a (rational) unity and founded on an absolute principle.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1762-1814	Spruce	From the reason of the subject matter, spirit and ideas emerge as objective reality The acting I produces the not-I, which is the object of natural science. Knowledge of freedom arises from the awareness of the active self.	1803 Reichsdeputationshauptschluss 1805 Battle of Trafalgar 1805 Battle of Austerlitz 1804 Civil Code
1775-1854	Schelling	The I and the existing world are united in the consciousness of subject and object Everything contains two opposing forces - finitude and infinity, etc.	1806 Rhine Confederation 1806 continental barrier
1770-1831	Hegel	The entire world process is self-development of the absolute spirit (world spirit) He releases himself into the alien form of nature and comes to himself through history in man Dialectics as a development principle: thesis - antithesis - synthesis Logic (thesis) Science of the pure, not yet alienated, space and timeless idea (the idea itself) God presents himself in the pure idea Natural philosophy (antithesis to logic) Science of the idea in its otherness as an alienated, alienated idea subject to spatial and temporal conditions Spiritual philosophy (synthesis of logic and natural philosophy) Science of the idea that returns to itself from being different Subjective mind (thesis) The individual person is considered Here the mind becomes conscious of itself for the first time Objective Mind (Antithesis) The collective (family, society, state) is considered in a historical context The aim of the story is the realization of the world spirit; it guides the course of history So the course of the story must be reasonable The subjective spirit enters the objective order, supra-individual laws ( ethics ) apply State as a concrete form of the moral idea Absolute mind (synthesis of subjective and objective mind) The mind has returned from being different and is completely within itself Art : harmony revealed through external sensuality Religion : harmony revealed through inner presence Philosophy : Synthesis of art and religion, pure thought prevails, the idea has come to itself	1807 Ban on the slave trade in Great Britain and the USA 1807 Liberation of the peasants in Prussia 1808 City order in Prussia 1808 1st Brockhaus 1808 Russia annexes Finland
Hegelianism Hegelianism is a collective name for the philosophical currents in the 19th and 20th centuries that followed or referred to Hegel. Right Hegelians The supporters of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who affirmed the Prussian state with a conservative orientation and saw in Hegel the consummate Christian philosophy, are called Old Hegelians or Right Hegelians.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1780-1846	Philipp Konrad Marheineke	Theologian, following systematic thinking, tried to bring Hegel's faith and knowledge into harmony	1809 educational reform in Prussia ( Wilhelm von Humboldt )
1781-1861	Carl Friedrich Goeschel	In the aphorisms about ignorance and absolute knowledge sought to combine theology and philosophy	1810 Freedom of trade in Prussia
1786-1869	Johannes Schulze	as an advocate of neo-humanism, advocated the need for encyclopedic general education As a cultural politician, helped many Hegelians to get a job at the universities of Prussia	1811 Paraguay becomes independent
1786-1853	Georg Andreas Gabler	defended the Hegelian philosophy against Trendelenburg	1811 machine attacker in England ( Luddism )
1798-1839	Eduard Goose	Legal philosopher, founder of comparative law in Germany Opponent of the historical law school around Savigny	1812 emancipation of Jews in Prussia
1791-1866	Leopold von Henning	Editing of the “Yearbooks for Scientific Criticism” (“Berlin Yearbooks”), the journalistic organ of the Hegel School	1813 Battle of the Nations near Leipzig
1801-1893	Karl Ludwig Michelet	founded the Philosophical Society in Berlin in 1843 applied Hegelian methods and principles to questions of the ancient history of philosophy wanted to develop Hegel's teaching into a reality-changing "philosophy of action"	1814 Napoleon goes to Elba
1801-1871	Ludwig Boumann	aesthetic fonts criticized Michelet's legal philosophy	1815 Congress of Vienna ( German Confederation , Restoration )
1802-1873	Heinrich Gustav Hotho	implemented Hegel's philosophy in particular in the field of aesthetics and art history	1815 Battle of Waterloo
1805-1873	Karl Rosenkranz	In contrast to many Hegelians against dialectics, he put the idea of ​​harmony in the foreground and was heavily criticized by Michelet and Ferdinand Lassalle	1815 Ceylon becomes a British colony
1805-1892	Johann Eduard Erdmann	Depicts the history of philosophy as a continuous continuation of the task of answering the essential questions of life from the beginning of time.
Left Hegelians The Young Hegelians or Left Hegelians were a group of German intellectuals in the mid-19th century. The Young Hegelians took over dialectics from Hegel , understood as a principle of historical development and a method of criticizing the existing against the standard of reason. On the other hand, they turned against the conservatism inherent in Hegel's system , according to which everything that exists is declared necessary and is fundamentally reasonable.
1808-1874	David Friedrich Strauss	With the work "The Life of Jesus, edited critically" he divided the Hegelians	1816 Independence of the United States on the Río de la Plata ( Argentina )
1804-1872	Ludwig Feuerbach	Materialist ("Man is what he eats") Thoughts and ideas are also manifestations of matter Religion is an anthropological phenomenon "Man created God in his own image"	1836 The great trek in South Africa 1837 Göttingen 7 1839–1842 First Opium War ( Hong Kong becomes a colony) 1839 Child labor is prohibited in Prussia
1806-1856	Max Stirner	"Nothing beats me" Spirit, religion, values ​​are nothing but "rafters"	1844 Weavers' revolt 1846 USA annex Texas
1814-1876	Bakunin	Founder of political anarchism
1818-1883	Karl Marx	Historical materialism The material basis (production relations), determines the ideological (spiritual) superstructure ( basic superstructure schema ) Turns Hegel's philosophy "from head to foot" Social change results from the dialectic of the historical process The next stage in historical development is communism It includes u. a. the abolition of the alienation of man "Workers of all countries, unite!" ( Communist Manifesto ) “The philosophers have only interpreted the world in different ways; but it depends on changing them. "(11th of the Feuerbach thesis ) Hauptwerk Das Kapital deals with the genesis and nature of capitalism	1846–1847 crop failures lead to famine in Europe 1848 year of the revolutions 1848 National Assembly in the Paulskirche in Frankfurt 1851 First world exhibition in London
1820-1895	Friedrich Engels	Philosophical companion and (also financial) sponsor of Karl Marx Has worked on the theory and works of Karl Marx Editor of Marx works after his death	1854–1856 Crimean War
1809-1882	Bruno Bauer
1802-1880	Arnold Ruge
1807-1887	Friedrich Theodor Vischer
foreign countries
1792-1867	Victor cousin	First spread Hegel's philosophy in France
1817-1883	Bertrando Spaventa	Italian idealist
historicism Historicism describes an influential philosophical and historical trend in Germany in the 19th and 20th centuries . It emphasizes the historicity of man, his anchoring in a tradition and the awareness of being shaped by the past, and regards any ideas and institutions such as state and nation not as the rational results of social processes, but as organic, historically produced beings. In historicism, history should not be explained by philosophical or metaphysical superstructures; instead, an understanding of the individuality of the individual epochs and events should be developed.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1776-1831	Barthold Georg Niebuhr	Founder of historiography	1819 USA acquires Florida from Spain
1778-1841	Friedrich Ast	Systematic philosophy of history, Plato researcher
1795-1886	Leopold von Ranke	Objectivity of historical knowledge	1821 Risorgimento in Italy
1805-1859	Alexis de Tocqueville	founded comparative political science political equality leads to a reduction in personal responsibility
1808-1884	Johann Gustav Droysen	Hermeneutics in History	1821 Mexico becomes independent
1834-1896	Heinrich von Treitschke	Prussia's splendor and glory Anti-semite	1829 Emancipation of Catholics in Great Britain
1817-1903	Theodor Mommsen	Liberal opponent in the anti-Semitism dispute	1929 Peace of Edirne brings independence to Greece
1818-1897	Jacob Burckhardt	Eminent cultural historian	1830 France begins conquering Algeria
1826-1871	Friedrich Ueberweg	Historian of philosophy and Aristotelian	1832 Hambach Festival
1862-1954	Friedrich Meinecke	Founder of the history of ideas	1834 German Customs Union
1866-1952	Benedetto Croce	Social historian	1835 First railway in Germany ( Adler )
Positivism and Science While the philosophy of German idealism dealt predominantly with basic questions of spirit and knowledge, clearer advances and a rapid gain in knowledge took place in the natural sciences and technology . A counterbalance to idealism is the resurgence of empiricism . It found its specific expression in the 19th century, especially in France and England, in so-called positivism . This is to be understood as a philosophy in which the world is to be explained by the natural sciences and the objects defined in it.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1775-1836	André-Marie Ampère	distinguished cosmological and noological sciences Relational concepts such as space, time, number, causality have absolute validity
1798-1857	Auguste Comte	Represented a strict determinism and a mechanistic worldview World interpretation according to the three stages theological, metaphysical, positive	Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848)
1748-1832	Jeremy Bentham	Founder of utilitarianism	Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852)
1794-1866	William Whewell	broad science education, science theorists His studies on induction influenced Charles S. Peirce's theory of abduction .
1806-1873	John Stuart Mill	Economist and important representative of liberalism Expanded utilitarianism and demanded suffrage for all association psychology and induction theory In contrast to Bentham, he did not represent a quantitative, but a qualitative utilitarianism advocated the equality a	Louis Daguerre (1787-1851)
1825-1895	Thomas Henry Huxley	Agnosticism and Epiphenomenalism	Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
1820-1903	Herbert Spencer	Evolutionism as Darwin's Application to Society	Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
1773-1843	Jakob Friedrich Fries	Wanted to combine Kant's philosophy with more recent psychological findings	Justus von Liebig (1803–1873)
1776-1841	Johann Friedrich Herbart	Logic as a science of the conditions of the meaning of concepts Outstanding educator	Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
1781-1848	Bernard Bolzano	Eminent logician	Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (1811–1899)
1808-1896	Ernst Kapp	first philosophy of technology	Werner von Siemens (1816–1892)
1817-1895	Carl Vogt	Physician, zoologist, "1848", materialism dispute
1822-1893	Jakob Moleschott	Energy as a natural cycle Popular philosopher	1857–1858 Sepoy uprising in India
1824-1899	Ludwig Büchner	Sensualist and popular philosopher	1861–1865 Civil War
1818-1896	Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond	Beyond the limits of knowledge of nature (mechanistic explanation of nature) ignoramus et ignorabimus	James Prescott Joule (1818-1889)
1836-1913	Wilhelm Schuppe	Unity of logic and epistemology Founder of the immanence school	William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907)
1837-1885	Ernst Laas	Only empiricism is scientifically justified.	James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
1838-1916	Seriously do	important scientist and empiricist The importance of a theory depends on its utility.	Alfred Nobel (1833-1896)
1843-1896	Richard Avenarius	With Mach the founder of empirical criticism	Robert Koch (1843-1910)
1834-1919	Ernst Haeckel	Spread the theory of evolution Equated God with the laws of nature	Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)
1817-1881	Rudolf Hermann Lotze	Fought vitalism The ultimate world reason is personality With the concept of validity created a basis for the philosophy of values	Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931)
1873-1942	Heinrich Gomperz	Later a representative of empirical criticism
Other 19th century philosophers The 19th century brought forth some great philosophers whose views, as it were, do not fit into one drawer, i.e. cannot be assigned to one of the other categories. Above all, it is philosophers who were powerful with new thoughts and concepts and who received much more attention than the "direction philosophers" in the 20th century.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1767-1835	Wilhelm von Humboldt	Humanist and educational politician The nature of the language community determines the self-image The statesman is a representative of the people and not an educator	1862 Otto von Bismarck becomes Prime Minister of Prussia
1788-1860	Arthur Schopenhauer	The outside world is appearance Ideas in space and time are generated by the will Egoism as the main driving force can only be canceled out in art Ethics based on compassion	1864 Foundation of the Red Cross 1864–1867 Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico
1802-1872	Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg	Aristotelian	1864 German-Danish War
1813-1855	Søren Kierkegaard	(Co-) founder of existential philosophy Religion is not a matter of knowledge but of belief God is profoundly different Each person stands before God as an individual with his or her existential problems Basic categories are existence , fear , freedom , decision There is no objective halt, the individual is coming back to his own existence thrown back Man's task is to realize himself Differentiation between three forms of existence Aesthetic Existence: State of Despair; man lives from the external and the sensual Ethical existence: independence from the outside; man leads a serious, conscious life in which he recognizes himself as a sinner and frees himself from his despair Religious existence: belief in God who alone can free man from sin ; perfect existence of man as self	1865 Abraham Lincoln is assassinated 1866 German War - the North German Confederation is established.
1840-1912	Gideon Spicker	strived for a religion in a philosophical form on a scientific basis
1844-1900	Friedrich Nietzsche	Loaths all ideologies (" idols "), especially those of modernity Pioneer of postmodern thinking Interprets human life as a struggle between active and reactive power This struggle weakens people, life withers, it loses power Criticism of the prevailing morality Lord morality vs. Slave morality The prevailing Christian morality is slave morality Contrasts the Judeo-Christian tradition with the Greek-ancient tradition and in the field of art the Appolian rational versus the Dionysian artistic Calls for a " revaluation of all values ", ie the establishment of a master's morality , as a natural world order The goal is the superman (ape - human - superman ) The superman is characterized by the will to power belief in the eternal return of the same the love of fate ( amor fati ) the knowledge of the death of God (" God is dead") Overcoming the conflict between reactive and active power in order to increase one's own vitality and strength (active power)	1867 USA buys Alaska from Russia 1869 Opening of the Suez Canal 1869 Central Pacific Railroad and Union Pacific Railroad bridge the gap in the coast-to-coast rail link.
Neo-Kantianism As a neo-Kantian one is philosophical flow, made up, after the ebbing of idealism as a countermovement to the more and more expanding strongly in the natural sciences rooted materialism developed. The demand was made to go back directly to Immanuel Kant and to develop a philosophy that met the demands of the then modern sciences.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1814-1908	Eduard Zeller	Founder of epistemology as a discipline	1869 founding of the SPD
1824-1907	Kuno Fischer	Historian of philosophy	1870 First Vatican Council (Infallibility of the Pope)
1828-1878	Friedrich Albert Lange	critical "history of materialism"
1840-1912	Otto Liebmann	One must go back to Kant	1870 Heinrich Schliemann's first excavation in Troy
1842-1918	Hermann Cohen	Not concepts, but judgments are the basis of human thought Founder of the Marburg School	1870 After France declares war, Prussia wins the Battle of Sedan
1844-1924	Alois Riehl	Criticism to update Kant	1871 Imperial coronation of Wilhelm I.
1848-1915	Wilhelm diaper tape	Doctrine of universal values Truth in thinking, goodness in willing and beauty in feeling Understanding Kant means going beyond him	1871 Henry Morton Stanley finds David Livingstone
1849-1921	Franz Staudinger	ethical marxist Pioneer of the consumer cooperative	1873 Vienna stock market crash : Great Depression with 1st world economic crisis
1852-1933	Hans Vaihinger	Philosophy of the as if Founder of the Kant studies	1873 Three Emperor Agreement
1854-1924	Paul Natorp	Mainly deals with the logic of science. Rejects the existence of the thing in and of itself and mind-independent notions.	1875 Third French Republic
1856-1938	Rudolf Stammler	Legal philosophy	1876 Battle of Little Big Horn River ends with the defeat of General Custer 1976 The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
1860-1928	Karl Vorländer	History philosopher and Marxist Kant biographer and editor	1878 Berlin Congress
1863-1936	Heinrich Rickert	Value philosophy Cultural studies versus natural science	1878 Law against the endangering efforts of social democracy (" Socialist Law ") 1878–1880 Fyodor Dostoyevsky writes The Brothers Karamazov
1869-1947	Jonas Cohn	Thing and knowledge can only be known together through dialectical thinking Value ethicist	1979 Dual alliance between Germany and Austria
1869-1955	Robert Reininger	Psychophysical problem and philosophy of values	1881 Three Emperor Treaty between Germany, Austria and Russia
1875-1915	Emil Lask	Category theory and judgment theory	1881–1885 reign of the Mahdi 1882 Triple Alliance through Italy joining the Dual Alliance
1874-1945	Ernst Cassirer	History of epistemology Philosophy of symbolic forms anthropology	1883 health insurance for workers 1883 First edition of Treasure Island as a book 1883–1885 Thus Spoke Zarathustra appears
1875-1947	Richard Hönigswald	The basic problem of the given General methodology	1884 Saltpeter War In 1884 Mark Twain published The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
1877-1942	Bruno belly	Received Frege Patriotic position in the Nazi era
1878-1946	Arthur Liebert	How is critical philosophy even possible?	1884 Start of publication of the Oxford English Dictionary
Psychologism The representatives of psychologism do not belong to a uniform school and, in aspects of their philosophy, can also be assigned to other directions. What they have in common is that thinking is understood as a psychological function and this aspect plays an essential role in their philosophy. In psychologism in the narrower sense, thoughts are always an expression of motivation . As a result, they can never be true or false. This consideration leads to a conflict with logic.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1798-1854	Friedrich Eduard Beneke	Demanded an anti-idealistic philosophy based on inductive psychology.
1801-1887	Gustav Theodor Fechner	Just wanted to look at physically measurable processes in psychology.
1818-1903	Alexander Bain	Co-founder of association psychology
1832-1920	Wilhelm Wundt	Represented a psychophysical parallelism Founder of the first institute for experimental psychology Work on logic and induction
1838-1917	Franz Brentano	Founder of nude psychology Coined the concept of intentionality	1884 German Empire acquires colonies (Cameroon, South West Africa, Togo, etc.)
1842-1906	Eduard von Hartmann	Critical realism Philosophy of the unconscious	1885 Berlin Congo Conference , another colony in East Africa (Ruanda-Urundi)
1847-1914	Anton Marty	Student of Brentano, Studies on Language Functions	1886 gold rush in South Africa
1848-1936	Carl Stumpf	Student of Brentano and teacher of Husserl	1886 First automobile by Carl Friedrich Benz 1886 Inauguration of the Statue of Liberty
1851-1914	Theodor Lipps	At the center of his reflections was the 'inner experience', which was also the guiding factor in his philosophizing in his psychological aesthetic.	1887 Annexation of Macau by Portugal
1853-1920	Alexius Meinong	Tried to show the representativeness of feelings and desires.
1859-1932	Christian von Ehrenfels	Student of Brentano, mastermind of Gestalt theory
1861-1934	James Mark Baldwin	overarching aesthetic experience, Baldwin effect
1873-1926	Rudolf Eisler	Wundt's follower, lexicographer, edging specialist
pragmatism The pragmatism (from Greek. Pragma "action", "thing") refers to a philosophical attitude that the actions in the detection and the truth Education tight living environment are running mates. It assumes that theoretical knowledge also arises from the practical handling of things and remains dependent on them. Pragmatism is the first independent American philosophical movement.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1839-1914	Charles S. Peirce	Outstanding mathematician and logician ( abduction as third reasoning; Peirce function ; standard notation of predicate logic ; existential graphs ) Categories of firstness, secondness and thirdness Knowledge is an alternation between conviction and doubt ( pragmatic maxim ) Formulated fallibilism With his semiotics he created the foundations of the philosophy of language	1887 France founds Indochina
1842-1910	William James	Skeptic and strict empiricist Theories are true with practical relevance The Will to Believe The pragmatism	1888 three emperor year
1859-1952	John Dewey	Pragmatism in the field of pedagogy and sociology	1889 Old age and disability insurance in the German Reich
1863-1931	George Herbert Mead	Symbolic interactionism Social Beheaviorism	1890 Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck
1864-1937	FCS Schiller	Pragmatism as "humanism" to justify the idea of ​​progress and freedom	1890 Germany exchanges Zanzibar for Heligoland
Philosophy of life Philosophy of life is a branch of philosophy that was developed in France and Germany as an alternative to the natural sciences and the one-sided emphasis on rationality. The becoming of life, the holistic nature cannot be grasped and described with concepts and logic alone . An encompassing life also includes non-rational, creative and dynamic elements.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1833-1911	Wilhelm Dilthey	Establishment of the humanities as an independent field of science Experience of connections - difference between explaining and understanding Extension of hermeneutics to art, law and religion	1895 Kaiser Wilhelm Canal 1895 Universal suffrage in New Zealand - including women 1894–1895 First Sino-Japanese War . Japan receives Formosa in the peace of Schmonoseki 1895 The Time Machine by HG Wells appears
1846-1926	Rudolf Eucken	worked on The Meaning and Value of Life and Spiritual Currents of the Present philosophical opponent of his friend Ernst Haeckel	1896 France annexed Madagascar
1859-1941	Henri Bergson	Experienced time as a state of mind Knowledge of the holistic nature requires intuition	1896 First modern Olympics
1861-1949	Maurice Blondel	Developer of the philosophy of action. His way of thinking is shaped by the revelation of God in the Catholic tradition.
1858-1918	Georg SImmel	Truth is a realm that is independent of the psyche Ought is an original category Philosophy of money : money becomes god Founder of urban sociology	1896 Abyssinia's victory over Italy 1896 Theodor Herzl : The Jewish State 1896 Turkish-Greek War 1896 Utah becomes the 45th state in the USA
1867-1941	Hans Driesch	Representative of neovitalism	1897 Korea breaks away from China 1897 gold rush to the Klondike River 1897 1st Zionist World Congress in Basel 1897 Invention of corn flakes 1897 At the University of Vienna women are admitted to the Philosophical Faculty as regular students
1872-1956	Ludwig Klages	Contrast of body and soul Epistemology as a science of consciousness	1898 Spanish-American War 1898 annexation of the Republic of Hawaii by the USA 1898 Wilhelmina von Oranien-Nassau becomes Queen of the Netherlands 1898 Pierre and Marie Curie discover radium together with Gustave Bémont
1878-1965	Georg Misch	Dilthey student, history of the autobiography
1882-1929	Erich Becher	There is something beyond the individual's soul	1899 Filipino-American War 1899 first Hague Peace Conference 1899 Foundation of the Emscher Cooperative 1899–1902 Second Boer War in South Africa
20th century With the increasing phenomena of mass society in the course of industrialization , with the new worldviews triggered by the explosive development of the sciences ( relativity theory , quantum physics , psychoanalysis , molecular biology , information technology , genetic engineering ), the global effects of human activity ( genocide by National Socialism , North-South conflict , environmental disasters , impending climate catastrophe ) the philosophy of the 20th century was concerned with partly fundamentally new perspectives. This led to a strong heterogeneity of philosophical concepts, which makes a division into classical schools hardly possible. A classification of philosophical thinking in contemporary philosophy always violates the actually existing diversity in the combination of the individual positions. What is systematically common to 20th century philosophy is the emphasis on the meaning of language .
Natural scientist The dynamic development of the natural sciences since the 19th century had led to a fundamental change in the general worldview , which reached its climax with the theory of relativity and the new atomic physics . The idea of ​​universal laws of nature that had ruled since Isaac Newton had to be questioned. Even if the question of worldview is in the background for natural scientists in their daily work , a number of prominent representatives have given reflective comments on this.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1856-1939	Sigmund Freud	Doctor, neurologist, founder of psychoanalysis Concepts like the ego, it, superego
1858-1947	Max Planck	Discovered the quantum of action Einstein's pioneer	1900 Boxer Rebellion in China 1900 In Germany the Civil Code (BGB) and the Commercial Code (HGB) come into force. 1900 The poet and politician Paul Déroulède is sentenced to ten years in exile in France for high treason. 1900 Paris World Exhibition 1900 direct telegraph traffic between Germany and the USA via overseas cables
1870-1937	Alfred Adler	Physician, founder of individual psychology	In 1901 the unified state of Australia was created 1901 Norway is the first European country to introduce general women's suffrage at the municipal level. 1901 German troops suppress a Fulbe uprising in the Cameroon colony near Garua . 1901 The anarchist Leon Czolgosz assassinated US President William McKinley at the Pan American Exhibition in Buffalo . 1901 The Wuppertal suspension railway goes into operation.
1875-1961	Carl Gustav Jung	Physician, Analytical Psychology	1902 End of the Boer War with the Peace Treaty of Vereeniging 1902 Cuban independence with the support of the USA 1902 Léon-Philippe Teisserenc de Bort discovers the stratosphere and the tropopause . 1902 The Aswan Dam is officially inaugurated.
1875-1965	Albert Schweitzer	Lambaréné Significant moral-philosophical work: Reverence for life Pacifism instead of deterrence
1879-1955	Albert Einstein	His theory of relativity changed the worldview “God does not roll the dice” - looked for evidence of determinism	1904 Entente Cordiale between Great Britain and France 1904 Friedrich August III. becomes king of Saxony . 1904 uprising of the Herero and Nama 1904 The horse cabs in Paris introduce taximeters for the first time .
1879-1963	Karl Bühler	Eminent language theorist Representative of the Würzburg School	1905 Norway separates from Sweden 1905 Russian Revolution 1905 The Maji Maji uprising breaks out in German East Africa . 1905 With the Prussian Water Act, the construction of the Mittelland Canal is decided. 1905 Bertha von Suttner is the first woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for her work The Arms Down! .
1882-1961	Percy Williams Bridgman	High pressure physicist Operationalism	1906 Wilhelm Voigt occupies the town hall of Köpenick . 1906 The work of children under the age of 10 is allowed in family businesses in the German Reich. 1906 Alois Alzheimer diagnoses Alzheimer's disease for the first time .
1885-1962	Niels Bohr	The principle of complementarity shows that all research is theory-laden.	1906 San Francisco earthquake 1906 Die Brücke holds its first exhibition in Dresden. 1906 Courrières mine disaster in northern France 1906 first Montessori school in Rome
1887-1961	Erwin Schrödinger	Wave mechanics as a further basis of modern physics Schrödinger's cat and quantum leap	1907 Law on the copyright in works of the fine arts and photography 1907 3,000 British suffragettes demonstrate in London for the introduction of women's suffrage .
1894-1964	Norbert Wiener	Founder of cybernetics	1908 Henry Ford builds the first T-model 1908/09 uprising of the Young Turks
1900-1958	Wolfgang Pauli	Contributed significantly to Heisenberg's quantum mechanics Correspondence with CG Jung on the psychophysical problem	1909 Robert Peary reaches the North Pole
1901-1972	Ludwig von Bertalanffy	Theoretical biology , general systems theory , steady state
1901-1976	Werner Heisenberg	The uncertainty relation shook determinism
1903-1989	Konrad Lorenz	Comparative behavioral research ( ethology ) Evolutionary Epistemology
1904-2005	Ernst Mayr	Theoretical biology , main proponent of the synthetic theory of evolution	1910 Japan annexes Korea 1910 Overthrow of the monarchy in Portugal 1910 Foundation of the Odenwald School 1910 The rats by Gerhart Hauptmann
1912-2007	Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker	Quantum physicist, astrophysicist and philosopher Association of Religion, Asian Contemplation and Philosophy Philosophy of time	1911 Mongolia proclaims independence from China 1911 Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole 1911 The old Elbe tunnel in Hamburg is inaugurated
1923-2007	Stephen Mason	History of natural science in the development of its ways of thinking	1912 End of the Chinese Empire 1912 sinking of the British luxury liner RMS Titanic 1912 Anton Köllisch synthesizes the ecstasy active ingredient MDMA for the first time
1925-2005	Rupert Riedl	Marine research, systems theory of evolution Evolutionary Epistemology	Foundation of the DLRG on October 19, 1913 1914 Opening of the Panama Canal
Historical and cultural criticism The successes of the natural sciences led on the one hand to an almost uninhibited belief in progress . At the same time, strong population growth gave rise to increasingly pronounced phenomena of mass society and doubts about traditional values . Above all, the experiences of the First World War intensified pessimistic views of the newly forming cultural conditions.
1856-1915	Karl Lamprecht	Against historicism, saw regularities in history.	1914 Start of the First World War
1861-1925	Rudolf Steiner	Anthroposophy in Medicine ( Weleda ), Architecture and Agriculture ( Demeter) Waldorf education , curative education , eurythmy Unconditional epistemology ("Truth and Science" - 1891) Humans as body - soul - spirit as well as feeling soul - intellectual soul - consciousness soul Goal: I-transformation from the ephemeral single-I to the eternal all-I There is a sensual and a spiritual reality Differentiation of the levels of knowledge sensual - imaginative - inspirational - intuitive The spiritual reality can be perceived with our "spiritual eye" ( Theosophy ) Mystical meditation as a method for training the holistic knowledge
1880-1936	Oswald Spengler	Fall of the West Pessimistic cultural philosophy	1914 Battle of Tannenberg 1914 First battle of the Marne
1872-1945	Johan Huizinga	shows a flowing transition to the Renaissance in the autumn of the Middle Ages develops a theory of the game ( ludology ) in Homo ludens
1872-1933	Theodor Lessing	Own ethics of values: reduce the pain Philosophy of Action (references to Schopenhauer and Nietzsche) Murdered by the National Socialists
1879-1960	Herman Nohl	Aesthetics and humanities education	1915 German submarine sunk RMS Lusitania
1880-1962	Theodor Litt	Cultural philosopher and educator	1915 Battle of Ypres (first poison gas )
1880-1948	Ernst von Aster	History of Philosophy, Psychoanalysis	1915–1917 genocide against the Armenians
1882-1963	Eduard Spranger	Connected to the philosophy of life	1917 Unrestricted submarine warfare leads to the USA entering the war
1883-1953	José Ortega y Gasset	Proximity to the philosophy of life	1917 Balfour Declaration
1885-1981	William James Durant	Cultural history of mankind from a holistic perspective human behavior as a constant
1889-1966	Siegfried Kracauer	Labeled media, especially film, and technology as ambivalent Judged the political orientation of the petty bourgeoisie as unstable as early as 1930 Criticized the one-dimensionality and coherence of theories
1889-1975	Arnold J. Toynbee	History is evolutionary and open-ended Turning away from Eurocentrism	1917 October Revolution 1918 14-point program of Woodrow Wilson
1892-1964	Alexandre Koyré	History of science Hegel	1918 Peace of Brest-Litovsk
1895-1985	Susanne K. Langer	Cultural philosophy as symbolic logic Symbol philosophy with close proximity to Ernst Cassirer
1903-1974	Joachim Ritter	Practical philosophy as hermeneutics Historical Dictionary of Philosophy (Ed.)	November 4, 1918 Kiel sailors' uprising November 9, 1918 Philipp Scheidemann's proclamation of the Republic in Germany
1904-1965	Hans Barth	History of ideas in politics; Truth and ideology
1907-1981	Othmar Anderle	“Theoretical History” as a subject Historical research has to meet the epistemological requirements of all empirical sciences	1918–1920 Russian Civil War
1911-1995	Emil Cioran	Aphorist and radical cultural critic - inspired by Nietzsche Anticipating the deconstruction
1920-1996	Hans Blumenberg	Metaphorology Shipwreck with spectators	1919 murder of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht
1926-2006	Clifford Geertz	Ethnologist and cultural philosopher
1926	Hermann Luebbe	Transcendental Philosophy and History
1927	Robert Spaemann	Ethics on a Christian basis
1928-2015	Odo Marquard	Skeptical philosophy of finitude
1943-1998	Panajotis condyle	Justification of norms is the futile attempt to give meaning to a meaningless life Reflections on the history of ideas of the Enlightenment, conservatism and the 20th century
phenomenology Is a philosophical movement that was shaped by Edmund Husserl in the first decades of the 20th century. Its representatives see the origin of the acquisition of knowledge in directly given appearances, precisely the phenomena . The formal descriptions of the phenomena basically reflect the demands of all phenomenological approaches, be they philosophical or scientific, literary or psychological.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1859-1938	Edmund Husserl	Founder of “ phenomenology ” as a strict science Truth as evidence Essential philosophy Investigation of consciousness and its products ( phenomena ) Content of consciousness is independent and therefore not just a "subjectively distorted" objective world Consciousness is always intentional , i.e. H. aimed at something Phenomena can be experienced directly (intuitively) without any preconditions Rejection of psychologism Method of eidetic reduction (essence vision) Later turned to transcendental phenomenology, in which he abolishes Kant's separation of understanding and sensuality Accordingly, consciousness is the absolute world-generating authority (transcendental consciousness) Value philosophy Values ​​can be felt phenomenologically	1919 Friedrich Ebert becomes President of the Reich 1919 Foundation of the League of Nations (excluding USA) 1919 Treaty of Versailles
1870-1941	Alexander Pfänder	Human being as a body-soul-spiritual trinity	1920 Kapp Putsch
1880-1937	Moritz Geiger	Phenomenology of Aesthetic Enjoyment	1920 partition of Ireland
1881-1966	Ludwig Binswanger	psychiatric analysis of existence , orientation also to Heidegger	1921 Matthias Erzberger is murdered
1883-1917	Adolf Reinach	Phenomenology in Law developed a theory of speech acts before the philosophy of language	1922 Egypt becomes a kingdom 1922 foundation of the USSR Benito Mussolini's March on Rome
1886-1957	Antonio Banfi	Cultural philosopher, critic of Croces spread Husserl's ideas in Italy	1923 Turkey is founded under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
1888-1966	Hedwig Conrad-Martius	Investigated the problem of reality	1923 hyperinflation in Germany
1889-1977	Dietrich von Hildebrand	phenomenological value philosophy	1923 Hitler putsch in Munich
1889-1964	Oskar Becker	Phenomenology of Geometry negative role in the Nazi era	1923–1925 occupation of the Ruhr
1891-1942	Edith Stein	Catholic nun of Jewish origin; murdered in Auschwitz Philosophical foundation of psychology	1924 Lenin's death 1924 Dawes Plan
1893-1970	Roman Ingarden	Phenomenology in the field of art	1925 Treaty of Locarno
1896-1991	Hans Reiner	phenomenologically founded ethics of values	1925 Reza Khan Pahlavi becomes a Shah in Iran
1899-1959	Alfred Schütz	Founder of phenomenological sociology	1926 Pilsudski's military coup
1900-1973	Aurel Kolnai	Questions of ethics Phenomenology of Hostile Feelings
1900-2002	Hans-Georg Gadamer	Hermeneutics
1902-1991	Ludwig Landgrebe	phenomenologically founded transcendental philosophy of history	1926 Germany joins the League of Nations
1905-1975	Eugene Fink	Worked as Husserl's private assistant during his time in NZ examined the phenomenon of the "world"	1926 Hirohito becomes emperor in Japan
1903-1991	Otto Friedrich Bollnow	Associated phenomenology with Existential philosophy, hermeneutics and pedagogy	1927 Charles Lindbergh crosses the Atlantic 1927 Metropolis by Fritz Lang
1906-1994	Max Muller	develops “metahistory” from existential philosophy , phenomenology and classical metaphysics
1906-1995	Emmanuel Levinas	Critique of Ontology Resistance to totality Philosophy to the other	1928 The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann
1907-1977	Jan Patočka	The natural world as a philosophical problem	1929 Young Plan
1908-1961	Maurice Merleau-Ponty	Phenomenology of the body and perception	1929 Black Friday (25. 10.) heralds global economic crisis , a
1918-2015	Walter Biemel	Philosophy of Art , Heidegger student
1922-2002	Michel Henry	Founder of the "radical life phenomenology "
1923-2004	Heinrich Rombach	Developed a structural ontology
* 1928	Hermann Schmitz	The New Phenomenology examines everyday and immediate experiences
* 1934	Bernhard Waldenfels	Phenomena of corporeality and the challenge of the foreign
Neo-hegelianism The neo-Hegelianism is a collective term for a sense of purpose for the renewal of the philosophical ideas of Hegel from about the first third of the 20th century. Its aim is to ward off positivism in the humanities. This inconsistent trend in philosophy is particularly widespread in Germany, but also in France, England, the Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Scandinavia and the USA.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1832-1917	Adolf Lasson
1846-1924	Francis Herbert Bradley	British idealism
1848-1923	Bernard Bosanquet
1849-1919	Josef Kohler
1854-1924	GJPJ Bolland
1855-1916	Josiah Royce
1862-1932	Georg Lasson
1866-1925	John McTaggart Ellis McTaggart	The unreality of time
1866-1952	Benedetto Croce
1869-1944	Léon Brunschvicg
1874-1944	Giovanni Gentile
1884-1974	Richard Kroner
1884-1964	Theodor Haering
1887-1969	Hans Freyer
1902-1968	Alexandre Kojève	Revival of Hegel's philosophy in France affected existentialism and post-structuralism
1903-1993	Karl Larenz
1907-1968	Jean Hyppolite
* 1952	Pirmin Stekeler-Weithofer
* 1960	Vittorio Hösle
Critical realism
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1854-1923	Wilhelm Jerusalem	pragmatic truth theory Principle of thought economy Translator from James
1859-1938	Samuel Alexander	Space, Time, and Deity
1861-1947	Alfred North Whitehead	" Principia Mathematica " with Russell Design of a speculative metaphysics in process and reality Founder of the process philosophy Stimulator of process theology
1862-1915	Oswald Külpe	Representative of the Würzburg School and Thinking Psychology Kantians
1863-1952	George Santayana	The idea of ​​reality is based on a rational instinct ("Animal Faith") four realms of being: essence, matter, truth and spirit the spirit gives meaning to the world
1873-1922	Arthur O. Lovejoy
1882-1950	Nicolai Hartmann	Ontology to overcome the opposition between materialism and idealism (layered structure of being) The ideal being (mathematics, beings, values) is timeless and unlimited. Real being (inorganic, life, soul, spirit) is temporal and individual material ethics of values
1888-1967	Aloys Wenzl	Different layers of reality
Philosophical anthropology
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1864-1944	Jakob Johann von Uexküll	Established essential foundations in biology and medical theory Differentiation between memory and real world Biosemiotics
1874-1928	Max Scheler	Material ethics of values The essence of man is the spirit
1888-1965	Erich Rothacker	Cultural anthropology problematic proximity to National Socialism
1892-1985	Helmuth Plessner	Eccentric positionality : man is a body and has a body (self-confidence) anthropological laws of natural artificiality, mediated immediacy, the utopian location The belated nation Community limits People play a role in public. There is the place of shame
1904-1976	Arnold Gehlen	The human being as a defective being Culture and institutions as compensation
1913-1994	Michael Landmann	Man as creator and creature of culture
* 1928	Helmut Fahrenbach	Anthropology and existentialism
* 1943	Karl-Siegbert Rehberg	Ties in with Gehlen's institutional theory
Existential philosophy Existential philosophy summarizes a number of philosophical approaches of the 19th and 20th centuries. They ask about the meaning and importance of the individual existence of the human being whom they place in the center of their consideration. The individual philosophemes turn against a one-sided rationalistic position and place an existential thinking that holistically includes the mind , soul and body in the foreground.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1874-1948	Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyayev	Christian existentialist , the "uncreated freedom" is based on nothing
1878-1960	Paul Häberlin	Philosophy of the big YES
1883-1969	Karl Jaspers	Man cannot grasp what is encompassing in its entirety Borderline situations show the questionable nature of the scientific worldview
1883-1951	Louis Lavelle	combined existential philosophy with a personalized spirituality
1889-1941	Hans Lipps	Existential philosophy based on the philosophy of language
1889-1976	Martin Heidegger	phenomenological ontology - being = being-in-the-world ontological difference between being and being Existential objects - exposure of worry - exposure of "temporality" Hermeneutic circle as a critique of the idea of ​​an exact knowledge
1888-1974	Jean Wahl	Association Hegel, Kierkegaard and Heidegger Driving force for French existentialism
1890-1965	Heinrich Barth	Appearance and Reality
1898-1983	Xavier Zubiri	called for a new ontology based on the natural sciences
1901-1990	Nicola Abbagnano	Existence is a search for being
1897-1973	Karl Löwith	stoic and skeptical philosophy
1902-1968	Alexandre Kojève	Hegel interpretation influenced by Marx
1902-1991	Ernesto Grassi	Powerlessness of rational language
1903-1993	Hans Jonas	Philosophy of the organic The principle of responsibility Power or powerlessness of subjectivity?
1905-1950	Emmanuel Mounier	authoritative representative of personalism
1905-1980	Jean-Paul Sartre	Influenced by Hegel , Husserl , Heidegger Representative of the atheistic existential philosophy Hauptwerk: " Being and Nothing " Man is condemned to freedom He has to create his own values and norms He is known for his action itself responsible His action is not determined He has to give meaning to his life himself It is from this responsibility that people's basic fear results Followers of anarchism Rejection of any government based on power (e.g. democracy), as they are not free of domination and therefore do not allow the realization of true freedom Only anarchism (= lack of domination) enables real human freedom	1940 French defeat
1905-1975	Wilhelm Weischedel	The god of the philosophers Criticism of dogmatic skepticism and nihilism Philosophizing is radical questioning with no prospect of definitive answers
1913-1960	Albert Camus	The futility of the world is a fact Sisyphus as a symbol of the absurd life situation of man	1954–1962 Algerian War
1921-2008	Karl Albert	“Ontological Experience”, Studies on Plato
Transcendental philosophy The term transcendental philosophy encompasses philosophical systems and approaches that describe the basic structures of being not through an ontology, but in the context of the creation and establishment of knowledge about being.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1901-1974	Wolfgang Cramer	“Experience” as the basic form of all subjectivity Ontology of subjectivity Idea of ​​"I think" by "thinking away from thinking"
1913-2004	Hermann Krings	Transcendental philosopher The idea of ​​freedom as the basis of human reason
1917-2000	Hans Wagner	Theory of reflection Problem of validity
1922-2017	Karl-Otto Apel	Transformation of the transcendental philosophy Discourse philosophy
* 1927	Dieter Henrich	Studies on self-esteem Research and interpretation of German idealism and Immanuel Kant
* 1930	Harald wood	Transcendental Relationism
1933-2002	Henri Lauener	Open transcendental philosophy constructive dialogue with Quine and Davidson
* 1936	Gerold Prauss	non-empirical theory of subjectivity based on space and time as intentionality
* 1936	Peter Rohs	Field theory of time
* 1939	Wolfgang Kuhlmann	affirms the possibility of a final justification Representative of discourse ethics
Kyoto School It bears the name for a school of philosophy in Japan that emerged in Kyoto at the beginning of the 20th century and marks the beginning of the systematic examination of the western intellectual tradition.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1870-1945	Nishida Kitaro	Founder of the Kyoto School Philosophy is the search for the "one truth" Attempt to synthesize philosophy and religion
1885-1962	Tanabe Hajime	Philosophy as "Metanoetics" (The Path of Repentance) Philosophy is only possible when all philosophical methods have been denied.
1900-1990	Nishitani Keiji	combined experiences from the practice of Zen Buddhism with existentialism
* 1944	Ryōsuke Ōhashi	Philosophy of Emptiness and Compassion
1926-2019	Shizuteru Ueda	The central theme is absolute nothing Dissertation on the mystical anthropology of Meister Eckhart and its confrontation with the mysticism of Zen Buddhism
Social philosophy Even social philosophy deals with questions about the meaning and essence of a society . In particular, it examines the relationship between the individual people and the community as well as the structures of living together .
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1855-1936	Ferdinand Tönnies	community and society Voluntarism
1858-1917	Emile Durkheim	Division of labor in industrial society - mechanical and organic solidarity sociological method - social fact The elementary forms of religious life
1864-1920	Max Weber	Science of social action free of value judgments Ethics of conviction and responsibility
1882-1927	Leonard Nelson	Re-establishment of the Fries school
1893-1947	Karl Mannheim	Symptoms of crisis in mass democracy
1897-1990	Norbert Elias	About the process of civilization From the creation of values Human sciences
1900-1980	Erich Fromm	" The Art of Loving " Social critic
1925-1986	Michel de Certeau	" The Art of Commerce " Sociology of Everyday Life
1927-1998	Niklas Luhmann	Founder of the sociological systems theory Variant of radical constructivism Communication as the smallest element controls social systems
1930-2002	Pierre Bourdieu	Post-structuralism Concepts such as habitus , social space , social field or space of lifestyles Differentiation between economic , social , symbolic and cultural capital Theory of symbolic violence The subtle differences
* 1934	Oskar Negt	Basics of the trade unions
* 1936	Herbert Schnädelbach	Discourse plurality and methodological rationalism
* 1953	Wilhelm Schmid	Philosophy of the art of living
Logical empiricism One of the main concerns of logical empiricism or logical positivism was to be able to specify exact criteria according to which one can judge philosophical methods as valid or invalid. An important motive for this was the comparison between the development of empirical sciences and mathematics on the one hand and philosophy on the other.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1882-1936	Moritz Schlick	Physicist and theorist of science Founder of the Vienna Circle
1879-1934	Hans Hahn	The Hahn-Banach theorem His most famous student was Kurt Gödel
1880-1975	Victor Kraft
1882-1945	Otto Neurath	Co-author of the scientific worldview Method of image education
1884-1966	Philipp Frank
1891-1970	Rudolf Carnap	Logical analysis of scientific language Sham problems of philosophy (metaphysics) Modal logic and probability-based induction
1891-1953	Hans Reichenbach	Truth cannot be inferred from observation. Knowledge is based on probability inferences.
1895-1945	Felix Kaufmann
1896-1959	Friedrich Waismann	Work on logic and philosophy of language
1902-1988	Herbert Feigl
1902-1985	Karl Menger
1905-1997	Carl Gustav Hempel	Hempel-Oppenheim scheme An explanation is given when certain adequacy conditions are met.
1885-1977	Paul Oppenheim	Co-founder of the Hempel-Oppenheim scheme Gestalt psychology and philosophy of science.
1906-1988	Kurt Gödel	Godel's incompleteness theorem axiomatic theory cannot prove its consistency
1910-1989	Alfred Jules Ayer	Language, truth and logic British representative of the Vienna Circle
1916-2003	Georg Henrik von Wright	Development of a deontic logic from modal logic Norwegian representative of the Vienna Circle
Analytical philosophy The starting point of analytical philosophy is the view that many problems in philosophy are caused by an insufficiently precise use of language. Therefore, a clarification of terms and a logical analysis of the language are required first. Similar views can be found parallel and in mutual exchange among the representatives of logical empiricism. In the beginning, the representatives of analytic philosophy dealt primarily with topics of language analysis. Over time, the spectrum broadened. At the end of the 20th century, analytical philosophy, now understood more as a method, had expanded to include all subject areas of theoretical and practical philosophy. In addition to language, most of its representatives deal with questions of epistemology, logic, the philosophy of mind, metatheoretical questions as well as ethical questions at the same time. An assignment to one of the following disciplines can therefore only be based on a priority focus. Philosophy of language
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1848-1925	Thank God Frege	Conceptual writing (meaning and meaning), function and concept , About meaning and meaning , About concept and object , Frege principle Basics of the newer, formal logic including second level predicate logic Founder of logicism in the philosophy of mathematics Teacher of Rudolf Carnap
1872-1970	Bertrand Russell	Return of mathematics to logic Paradox of set theory language-analytical atomism (theory of labeling )
1873-1958	George Edward Moore	Naturalistic fallacy Analytical method to establish common sense
1889-1951	Ludwig Wittgenstein	Tractatus logico-philosophicus Philosophical Investigations Speech analysis to clarify language confusion Language games and "family resemblances" of terms "The meaning of a word is its use"
1889-1957	Charles Kay Ogden	With reference to Peirce, developed the semiotic triangle
1900-1976	Gilbert Ryle	Myth of the ghost as a "ghost in the machine" Category error = wrong term in context
1909-1988	Max Black	Theory of Metaphor , Philosophy of Mathematics , Philosophy of Art
1911-1960	John Langshaw Austin	Speech act theory Locution = utterance; Illocution = role of utterance; Perlocution = consequence of the utterance
1913-1988	Paul Grice	Examined the speaker's meaning introduced the terms implicature and cooperation principle into the philosophy of language.
1917-2003	Donald Davidson	Meaning theory
1925-2011	Michael Dummett	Limits of the theory of meaning
* 1928	Noam Chomsky	Universal grammar , Chomsky hierarchy , generative transformation grammar Sharp social critic who is close to anarchism
1930-1971	Richard Montague	Developed formal semantics
* 1931	Keith Donnellan	Putnam and Strawson critics on labeling
* 1932	Dagfinn Føllesdal	specifically seeks to deal with continental philosophy
* 1932	John Searle	Further development of speech act theory Intentionality as a link between the philosophy of language and the philosophy of mind Rejection of reductionism in the philosophy of mind Thought experiment of the Chinese room Realism in relation to observer independent phenomena Construction of Social Reality
* 1933	David Kaplan	Worked on demonstrative pronouns
* 1938	Gilbert Harman	Quine Students, Antirealism, and Ethical Relativism
* 1940	Saul Aaron Kripke	Linguistic-philosophical externalism marked by rigid designators
* 1941	Eike von Savigny	Wittgenstein interpreter
* 1946	Scott Soames	Representative of externalism
* 1946	Tyler Burge	is considered a representative of externalism, a critic of physicalism
* 1958	Stephen Neale	defends Russell's theory of labeling
logic
1858-1932	Giuseppe Peano	Peano axioms Latin as a planned language without inflection
1862-1943	David Hilbert	Definition of terms and proof procedures in mathematics
1878-1956	Jan Łukasiewicz	Formulated a much discussed theory of truth Confirmation at the level of a metalanguage
1901-1983	Alfred Tarski	Semantic concept of truth
1902-1995	Joseph Maria Bocheński	Logician, representative of Platonism
1903-1930	Frank Plumpton Ramsey	Logician and friend of Wittgenstein Truth redundancy theory
1903-1995	Alonzo Church	Founder of theoretical computer science Platonists in the universality dispute
1919-2017	Raymond Smullyan	Mathematician specializing in paradoxes
1929-2015	Jaakko Hintikka	Logic , philosophy of science , possible world semantics
* 1930	Nuel Belnap	Belnap's four-valued logic
* 1949	Johan van Benthem	Modal logic
ontology
1908-2000	Willard Van Orman Quine	A theory can only be refuted as a whole ( Duhem-Quine thesis ) Every element of observation and every statement is loaded with theory strict empiricism and demand for naturalism = abolition of philosophy linguistic-philosophical holism
1916-2013	Peter Geach	developed an "analytical Thomism"
1919-2006	Peter Strawson	Individual things that can be determined spatially and temporally are real The equation of abstract facts with reality is metaphysics Theories prevail because of greater success semantic theory of presuppositions Theory of Transcendental Arguments
1926-2014	David Armstrong	Universal realism (laws of nature are relations between universals)
1931-2010	Reinhardt Grossmann	Categorical ontology Facts as the building blocks of the world
* 1932	Franz von Kutschera	Ontological dualism
* 1942	Peter van Inwagen	Ontology, identity and modality; Indeterminist
* 1951	Kevin Mulligan	works through truth makers
* 1952	Edward N. Zalta	For each set of properties there is exactly one object Editor of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* 1954	Barry Smith	Formal ontology Ontology in Computer Science Biomedical Ontology
ethics
1877-1971	WD Ross	deontological intuitionism The right thing and the good Proponents of perfectionism
1908-1994	William K. Frankena	Metaethics, theory of normative ethics
1908-1979	Charles L. Stevenson	Focus on ethics and aesthetics Representative of emotivism moral judgments are not descriptive
1912-2004	Alan Gewirth	deontological, rationalistic ethics Ultimate justification of morality based on self-reflection Principle of natural consistency
1917-1981	John Leslie Mackie	anti-metaphysical moral philosophy Fallacy of morals The miracle of theism INUS condition to explain causes
1919-2002	Richard Mervyn Hare	Moral language is above all prescriptive Combination of universality with prescriptivity leads to preferential utilitarianism
1919-2001	Elizabeth Anscombe	Revival of virtue ethics Early feminist philosopher Co-editor of Wittgenstein
1920-2010	Philippa Foot	modern Aristotelianism Virtue ethics with charity as an important value moral judgments are hypothetical (are not deontological) There is no dichotomy between facts and values Trolley problem as an ethical dilemma
1929-2003	Bernard Williams	Synthesis of different historical and cultural positions, anti-reductionism Critic of utilitarianism thematized morally dense terms
* 1930	Ernst Tugendhat	Philosophy of Language and Philosophy of Self Ethics and anthropology
* 1937	Cora Diamond	Wittgenstein's "Resolute Reading" Moral philosopher
* 1940	Thomas M. Scanlon	Contractualism
* 1942	Derek Parfit	Ethics, reason and person
* 1946	Peter Singer	Concept of the person as a problem of ethics Euthanasia and abortion?
* 1946	Dieter Birnbacher	Applied ethics, especially medical ethics and neuroethics Didactics of Philosophy
* 1947	Martha Nussbaum	Virtue ethics Social justice Chances of realization
* 1952	Susan R. Wolf	Free will and reason
* 1952	Christine Korsgaard	the sources of normativity Moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant
Philosophy of mind
1887-1971	Charlie Dunbar Broad	Emergence theory
1903-1997	John Carew Eccles	Brain researcher - advocated a dualism with Popper
1912-1989	Wilfrid Sellars	Myth of the given
1916-1999	Roderick Chisholm	Primacy of the intentional A priori knowledge is based on insight into necessary truth
1920-2012	JJC Smart	Identity theory , utilitarianism , atheism
* 1929	Harry Frankfurt	Analysis of the concept of freedom
1932-2013	Fred Dretske	Analysis of the concept of information in the field of epistemology and the philosophy of mind
* 1933	Joseph Levine	Explanation gap argument
* 1933	Ruth Millikan	naturalistic explanation of intentionality
1934-2019	Jaegwon Kim	Concept of supervenience
1935-2017	Jerry Fodor	Language of Thought
* 1937	Thomas Nagel	Anti-reductionism ("What is it like to be a bat") epistemological radical realism ("View From Nowhere")
1941-2001	David Lewis	Contributions to game theory Philosophy of mind
* 1942	Daniel Dennett	Eliminative materialism, represents the concept of memes leading member of the Brights
* 1942	Ned Block	Critique of Functionalism
* 1942	Paul Churchland	Eliminative materialism
* 1943	John Perry	works on indexicality and self-confidence
* 1943	Frank Cameron Jackson	developed with the thought experiment of Mary a antiphysikalistisches argument in the discussion of Qualia
* 1944	Peter Bieri	"The craft of freedom" Bieri Trilemma
* 1945	Ansgar Beckermann	Physicalism
* 1952	Joseph Levine	sees an explanation gap in the discussion of qualia
* 1956	Michael Pauen	Representative of identity theory
* 1958	Thomas Metzinger	Theory of self-models
* 1966	David Chalmers	Property dualism Controversial position on Dennett
Epistemology
* 1927	Edmund Gettier	Gettier problem
* 1936	Keith teacher	Coherence Theory of Justification
* 1940	Ernest Sosa	represents an epistemology based on virtues or values ​​(virtues)
* 1941	Robert Audi	Epistemologist, deals with business ethics
* 1943	Laurence Bonjour	Coherence Theory of Knowledge
* 1945	Susan Haack	developed a position as a combination of fundamentalism and coherentism represents a pragmatism based on Charles S. Peirce
Neopragmatism
1906-1998	Nelson Goodman	Goodman's new induction puzzle Languages ​​of art Symbol theory Sages of world creation - thesis "several worlds" Right instead of truth
1926-2016	Hilary Putnam	Switched from functionalism to naive realism Philosophy of Mind: The world is not just in the head Thought experiments from the brain in the tank and from the twin earth Universal linguistic division of labor ( semantic externalism ) language-philosophical theory of stereotypes
* 1928	Nicholas Rescher	methodical pragmatism Coherence theory of truth Process philosophy
1931-2007	Richard Rorty	Any fundamental philosophy is doomed to failure The mirror of nature The concept of truth can only be understood in a culturally relative way Denied the existence of mental phenomena ( eliminativism ) Historicization of epistemological questions
* 1942	John McDowell	Second nature Externalism in the Philosophy of Mind Undogmatic empiricism empirical justification of beliefs
* 1950	Robert Brandom	Linguistic pragmatist, inference theory Expessive reason
Critical Rationalism The critical rationalism 'and rational (rationally deals with the question of how scientific or social (but in principle also everyday) problems undogmatic, as scheduled (methodically)') can be investigated and resolved without the faith in science (positivism) or to succumb to epistemological relativism.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1902-1994	Karl Popper	Epistemology : Knowledge is neither certain, nor likely, or even justified ( knowledge skepticism ) Statements can still be true in an absolute sense (absolutism) rational distinction between true and false statements through falsification and criticism There are no epistemologically delimitable areas of knowledge or subjects Trial and error as a method of reason ( evolutionary epistemology ). Concept of the " open society " Rejection of all historicism and all utopian social planning Basic values are security, individual freedom and equal treatment, realized in Western democracy Happiness for all citizens cannot be achieved by the state; instead it is important to reduce suffering and injustice ( negative utilitarianism ) Reformation approach: social progress in small steps through social technology Ontology : three worlds (physical, psychological world and world of objects of thought (e.g. mathematics))
1919-2003	Ernst Topitsch	Criticizes supposed findings based on empty formulas Friendship with Albert, distance from Popper
* 1921	Hans Albert	Social philosopher - positivism dispute Munchausen Trilemma
1934-1990	William Warren Bartley	Pan-critical rationalism
* 1939	Hubert Kiesewetter
* 1940	Alan Musgrave
* 1940	Kurt Salamun
* 1942	David Miller
* 1943	Gerhard Vollmer	combines critical rationalism with moderate naturalism developed the evolutionary epistemology
1955-2018	Franz M. Wuketits	Representative of evolutionary epistemology
Political philosophy
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1867-1956	Julien Benda	Called for a United Europe ( Inquiry into the European Nation (1933)) Wrote against National Socialism ( The Test of Fate of Democracies (1942))
1869-1966	Friedrich Wilhelm Foerster	Moral philosopher War opponents - Nazi opponents
1888-1985	Carl Schmitt	anti-liberal opponent of pluralism thought in the tradition of Hobbes and Machiavelli was close to National Socialism
1899-1973	Leo Strauss	Neoconservatism
1899-1992	Friedrich August von Hayek	socio-economic and political philosophy of liberalism Constitution of a society of free people Theory of cultural evolution and human coexistence in societies based on the division of labor Critic of the presumption of knowledge and of collectivism
1901-1985	Eric Voegelin	State theory
1901-1990	Michael Oakeshott	epistemological idealism there are no objective theories (interpretationism) Political actions are determined by social rules (“rule of law”), which are considered the measure of good and evil the state is an association in which moral autonomy is guaranteed within the framework of the rules, and thus a prerequisite for distributive justice State perfectionism always involves the danger of totalitarianism, which is why political rationality alone guarantees a democratic society
1902-1992	Günther Anders	Pacifist and nuclear opponent warned against the destruction of humanity
1905-1983	Raymond Aron	Critic of totalitarianism Dialectics of peace and war Analysis of modern industrial societies
1906-1975	Hannah Arendt	What is existential philosophy? analyzed totalitarianism ( elements and origins of total domination ) wrote about the "banality of evil" in Eichmann's thinking ( Eichmann in Jerusalem ) Power and violence Vita activa or From active life About evil
1909-1997	Isaiah Berlin	Negative and positive freedom
1921-2002	John Rawls	Outstanding political philosopher of the 20th century With the works Theory of Justice and Political Liberalism , he represented an egalitarian liberalism
1930-1992	Allan Bloom	Cultural critic, turned against selfishness in modern society
1932-2003	Ernst Vollrath	Theory of the political (based on Arendt)
* 1933	Amartya Sen	Combines economics with ethics and political philosophy as a critic of the Public Choice Theory , he made significant contributions to the theory of collective decisions Stimulator for the human development index ; Contributions to the welfare function Based on the standard of living , he created the concept of realization opportunities
1938-2002	Robert Nozick	Libertarian social theory as a counterpoint to Rawls
* 1943	Otfried Höffe	Kantians, legal and state philosophy
Communitarianism Under communitarianism is defined as a political philosophy that emphasizes the responsibility of the individual to his environment and the social role of the family. Only on the basis of these common values, above all on the basis of a common conception of the good, can the principles of justice be meaningfully negotiated.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
* 1929	Amitai Etzioni	The active company
* 1929	Alasdair MacIntyre	wants to tie in with Aristotle's doctrine of virtue
* 1931	Charles Taylor	"Western identity"
* 1935	Michael Waltz	Spheres of justice
1939-2017	Benjamin R. Barber	calls for participatory democracy
* 1953	Michael Sandel	criticizes Rawls' lack of social values
Neo-Marxism and Critical Theory
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1873-1937	Max Adler	Austromarxism
1891-1937	Antonio Gramsci	Coined the term civil society Prison notebooks
1885-1971	Georg Lukács	drafted the idea of ​​a "democratic dictatorship of the proletariat" Esthete History and class consciousness The destruction of reason
1892-1940	Walter benjamin	combined art and cultural criticism with historical materialism German people The author as a producer The work of art in the age of its technical reproducibility About the concept of history
1885-1975	Ernst Bloch	The principle of hope taught a humanistic idea of ​​freedom developed the concepts of non-simultaneity and the concrete utopia
1895-1973	Max Horkheimer	fundamental criticism of the "bourgeois society" coined the concept of instrumental reason Founder and editor of the Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung
1898-1979	Herbert Marcuse	Employee of the Institute for Social Research Critique of Capitalism as the Ultimate Crisis of Human Being. The problem of alienation
1899-1990	Alfred Sohn-Rethel	Materialistic epistemology Abstract thinking as a consequence of the abstract exchange of goods
1903-1969	Theodor W. Adorno	Dialectic of the Enlightenment with Horkheimer Minimum moralia Philosophy of new music Jargon of authenticity Negative dialectic
1906-1985	Wolfgang Abendroth	Social history of the European labor movement; Marburg School
1907-1995	Leo Kofler	independent critical theory
1927-2009	Leszek Kołakowski	Humanistic Marxism
1927-2011	Hans Heinz Holz	Editor of Topos - International Contributions to Dialectical Theory
* 1929	Jürgen Habermas	Knowledge and interest Technology and science as "ideology" Theory of communicative action The philosophical discourse of modernity Discourse Theory of Law
1931-2012	Alfred Schmidt	"Pioneer of an undogmatic-emancipatory Marx reception"
* 1933	Antonio Negri	Operaism
1934-2004	Peter Bulthaup
* 1941	Domenico Losurdo	Critic of historical revisionism
1943-2013	Costanzo Preve	Anti-liberalism
* 1949	Axel Honneth	Theory of Recognition
Jewish philosophy The term Jewish philosophy describes the connection of philosophical studies with contents of the Jewish-religious traditions.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1878-1965	Martin Buber	Philosophy of you Philosophy of dialogue Me and you The script , with Franz Rosenzweig authoritative German translation of the Tanach , the Hebrew Bible
1880-1950	Julius Guttmann	The Philosophy of Judaism (1933) is considered a standard work on the history of Judaism
1881-1992	Mordechai M. Kaplan	Founder of Jewish reconstructionism in the USA religious naturalism based on John Dewey
1886-1929	Franz Rosenzweig	Interreligious Dialogue
1897-1982	Gershom Scholem	Worked on Kabbalah in particular
1916-2003	Emil Fackenheim	In addition to depictions of Jewish philosophy, works on German idealism
1923-1987	Jacob Taubes	Apocalyptic and gnosis
Philosophy of religion It is a philosophical discipline that deals with the manifestations and theoretical content of religion or religions. It tries to give systematic and rational answers to questions about the reasonableness of religious statements, about the nature and forms of religions and their practical significance in human life. It can manifest itself as a criticism of religion or as a linguistic-philosophical analysis of the form of religious languages.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1853-1924	Clemens Baeumker	Catholic historian of philosophy
1865-1923	Ernst Troeltsch	Systematist of the School of Religious History The absoluteness of Christianity and the history of religion
1875-1949	Martin Grabmann	History of Medieval Philosophy
1878-1944	Joseph Maréchal	French Neuthomist
1881-1955	Pierre Teilhard de Chardin	Life and cosmos are in a creative movement caused by God Omega point
1882-1937	Pavel Florensky	Philosopher, poet, theologian, art historian, mathematician, natural scientist - "Russian Leonardo da Vinci" shaped by Goethe's conception of nature and Tolstoy's late moral teaching Attempt to synthesize Russian religious and cultural philosophy with the scientific knowledge of the 20th century The aim of abolishing the modern separation of humanity and science Metaphysics of Symbolist Aesthetics
1882-1973	Jacques Maritain	Neuthomist, Christian Humanism Contributed to the formulation of the UN Declaration of Human Rights
1884-1940	Peter Wust	Christian dialogue and existential philosophy
1884-1988	Étienne Gilson	Neuthomist, Christian philosophy in the Middle Ages
1885-1965	Romano Guardini	Existential representations of life and thought
1886-1965	Paul Tillich	Religious socialist Proximity to critical theory
1886-1968	Karl Barth	Dialectical theology Confessing Church
1884-1976	Rudolf Bultmann	Demythologizing Scripture Existential ontology
1891-1982	Alois Dempf	Neuthomist
1889-1972	Erich Przywara	Jesuit, the finite cognitive faculty of man can never fully grasp infinite being
1903-1992	Johannes Baptist Lotz	Neuthomist existentialism
1904-1997	Josef Pieper	Neuthomist Philosophical anthropology
1904-1998	Hans-Eduard Hengstenberg	Every being contains existence, essence and existential principle
1909-1943	Simone Weil	Mystical contemplation and social revolution
1929-2005	Béla Weissmahr	Justification of metaphysics through the argument of retorsion
* 1934	Richard Swinburne	Argues for the existence of God using the method of inductive reasoning (God as a hypothesis )
1906-1959	Daniil Leonidowitsch Andrejew	Poets and mystics designed with Roza Mira ( The Rose of the World ) a mythical cosmogony and metaphilosophy of human history
Legal philosophy As a basic discipline of jurisprudence, legal philosophy asks about the nature of law, the relationship between law and justice and social norms, and the origin and validity of law. In the 20th century, there was a particular discussion as to the extent to which law is based exclusively on arbitrary setting ( legal positivism ) or whether there are overriding principles and norms that are applied in legal practice ( legal realism ). Both positions share the view that a metaphysical justification of law can be dispensed with.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1851-1911	Georg Jellinek	Categorization of basic or human rights in status theory Coined the term of the "normative power of the factual" Three-element doctrine , according to which the three characteristics “ State territory ”, “ State people ” and “ State authority ” are required to recognize a state as a subject of international law
1858-1943	Philipp Heck	Advocated the concept of interest jurisprudence Coined the expression “ paschal position ” for the creditor in the joint debt
1872-1942	Oskar Kraus	Legal philosopher, developed his own philosophy of values
1878-1949	Gustav Radbruch	Kantian philosophy of law Radbruch's formula : Positive law becomes invalid in the event of (extreme) injustice,
1881-1973	Hans Kelsen	Consistent legal positivist Proximity to Kant and critical rationalism
1904-1977	Hans Welzel	established the final action theory
1907-1992	HLA hard	Legal philosopher, moderate legal positivism
1912-2000	Helmut Coing	ties in with the value philosophy of Max Scheler and Nicolai Hartmann created the justice category of "iustitia protectiva", which obliges the state to protect the individual
1931-2013	Ronald Dworkin	Legal philosopher egalitarian theory of justice
* 1939	Richard Posner	Representative of the law and economics approach with the demand for an economic analysis of the law
* 1937	Norbert Hoerster	Ethics of interests instead of human dignity, legal positivism such as HLA Hart, skeptical philosophy of religion
* 1945	Robert Alexy	Application of discourse theory to the field of law
* 1964	Dietmar von der Pfordten	Connects legal philosophy with social philosophy “Normative Individualism” in Legal Ethics
Media and technology philosophy
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1910-1990	Max Bense	Semiotic , existential rationalism Linking natural science, art and philosophy, media philosophy
1911-1980	Marshall McLuhan	The Gutenberg Galaxy: The End of the Book Age The global village Understanding media The medium is the message.
1920-1991	Vilém Flusser	New media as an opportunity Exit at Heidegger
* 1932	Paul Virilio	Media critic Influence of speed on society ( dromology )
1943-2011	Friedrich Kittler	Record systems 1800/1900 Gramophone film typewriter
* 1947	Bruno Latour	Founder of the actor network theory
Philosophy of science
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1896-1961	Ludwik Fleck	Influence of thinking style and the thinking collective on theories
1900-1990	Richard Bevan Braithwaite	Induction is based on Hume worked in the fields of probability theory and game theory
1906-1987	Gustav Bergmann	ontological realist
* 1919	Mario Bunge	Connection to knowledge of logical empiricism, critical rationalism and systems theory represents scientific realism and rationalism Draft of an emergent materialism Defense of the principle of determinism Main work: Eight-volume Treatise on Basic Philosophy (1974–1989)
1922-1996	Thomas Samuel Kuhn	The Structure of Scientific Revolutions - Paradigm Shift
1922-1974	Imre Lakatos	Associated the theory of Poppers with Kuhn
1922-2014	Patrick Suppes	criticizes the reductionist ideal of unified science
* 1923	Adolf Grünbaum	Theory of Science of Physics
1923-1991	Wolfgang Stegmüller	Theoretical of science structuralism
1924-1994	Paul Feyerabend	anything goes Epistemological anarchism
1924-1967	Norwood Russell Hanson	empirical holism
* 1936	Ian Hacking	Entity realism
* 1938	Joseph D. Sneed	Theoretical of science structuralism
* 1939-2017	Bernulf Kanitscheider	uncompromising naturalist
* 1941	Larry Laudan	represents a "normative naturalism "
* 1941	Bas van Fraassen	Constructive empiricism
* 1943	Nancy Cartwright	Physical laws are descriptive ( entity realism , DN model )
* 1946	Paul Hoyningen-Huene	Work on incommensurability , reductionism and scientific ethics
* 1951	Sandra Mitchell	researches complex systems and advocates “integrative pluralism”.
* 1952	John Dupré	rejects determinism and advocates pluralistic metaphysics .
1954-2007	Peter Lipton	End to the best explanation
* 1960	Nassim Nicholas Taleb	Epistemology of Random Events skeptical empiricist , criticism of the random walk theory Financial mathematician and derivatives specialist ; Risk Management Theory
Methodical constructivism The program and goal of methodical constructivism is to reconstruct the creation of the objects of a science by specifying the methodically necessary steps and normative rules that underlie its methodically controlled and regular construction or "constitution" and must be observed if those "in indeed "should be realized.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1881-1954	Hugo Dingler	Idea generator - creator of protophysics pragmatic epistemology problematic role in the Nazi era
1915-1994	Paul Lorenzen	Logical propaedeutics Ortho language Constructive math Dialogic logic Protophysics constructive philosophy of science and policy advice
1905-1976	Wilhelm Kamlah	Language and science criticism Philosophical anthropology
* 1932	Kuno Lorenz	Dialogic anthropology
* 1936	Jürgen Mittelstrass	Philosophy of science, encyclopedia, historical Konstanz school
* 1935	Friedrich Kambartel	Practical philosophy and constructive philosophy of science
* 1937	Christian Thiel	Fundamental crisis in mathematics , philosophy of science
* 1942-2016	Peter Janich	Protophysics of space, time and matter Methodical culturalism
* 1944	Carl Friedrich Gethmann	Theory of reasoning , technology assessment
* 1960	Armin Grunwald	works primarily in the field of technology assessment
* 1964	Dirk Hartmann	Philosophy of Science of Psychology
Radical constructivism The core statement of radical constructivism is that a perception does not provide an image of a reality independent of consciousness, but that reality always represents a construction of sensory stimuli and memory performance for every individual. Therefore objectivity in the sense of a correspondence between the perceived (constructed) image and reality is impossible; every perception is entirely subjective. This is the radicalism (uncompromising) of radical constructivism.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1886-1980	Jean Piaget	Idea generator for Glasersfeld Genetic Epistemology Constructivism as the basis of developmental psychology
1911-2002	Heinz von Foerster	Recursion as the basis of a second-order cybernetics formulated the " ethical imperative ": "Always act in such a way that the number of options increases!"
1917-2010	Ernst von Glasersfeld	Knowledge is actively built up by the thinking subject The function of cognition is adaptive in the biological sense and aims at fit or viability Cognition serves to organize the subject's world of experience and not to 'cognize' an objective, ontological reality Organisms tend to repeat, remember, compare, and evaluate Knowledge is a process of perturbation and accommodation with the balance of equilibration
1921-2007	Paul Watzlawick	worked as a psychologist with Gregory Bateson on the double bond theory Communication theorists: Every communication has a content and a relationship aspect, with the latter determining the former The nature of a relationship is determined by the punctuation of communication between the partners Human communication uses digital and analog modalities Interpersonal communication processes are either symmetrical or complementary Promoted radical constructivism with popular books: The Invented Reality , Guide to Unhappiness
* 1928	Humberto Maturana	Director of the Biological Computer Laboratory The organization of the living is based on a combination of organismic biology and cybernetics created the concept of autopoiesis with Varela Language enables people to have areas of so-called consensuality
* 1940	Siegfried J. Schmidt	is considered the founder of empirical literary studies Advocate of socio-cultural constructivism
1946-2001	Francisco Varela	wrote with Maturana: The tree of knowledge Co-initiator of the first Mind and Life Dialog
* 1948	Kersten Reich	founded the approach of interactionist constructivism
Structuralism and Poststructuralism Structuralism is a collective term for interdisciplinary methods and research programs that examine structures and relationships in the largely unconsciously functioning mechanisms of cultural symbol systems. In post-structuralism , historical discontinuities and the critical examination of the relationship between linguistic practice and social reality are at the center of considerations.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1857-1913	Ferdinand de Saussure	Language theorist whose method has been implemented philosophically
1896-1982	Roman Jakobson	Every verbal message contains the six factors context, message, sender, recipient, contact, code Also coined the terms iconicity (similarity) and contrast ( indexicality ). Rejected the arbitrariness of language postulated by Saussure , since characters are part of a system of rules.
1908-2009	Claude Lévi-Strauss	Ethnologist and anthropologist First to use structuralism.
1901-1981	Jacques Lacan	psychoanalyst The universe of the subject consists of the imaginary and the symbolic
1902-1976	Émile Benveniste	Categories in Aristotle are language-dependent.
1913-2005	Paul Ricœur	Phenomenological analysis of language with reflexes on Heidegger Philosophy of history
1915-1980	Roland Barthes	structuralist semiotics ; Topics: modern media formerly a representative of post-structuralism
1918-1990	Louis Althusser	Marx interpreted structuralistically
1919-1983	Paul de Man	American representative of deconstruction
1926-1984	Michel Foucault	Criticizes the logic of advanced capitalism Discourse analysis as the archeology of knowledge
1930-2004	Jacques Derrida	différance
Postmodern In a general sense, postmodernity sheds light on the state of western society, culture and art “after” modernity . In a philosophical sense, it turns against certain institutions, methods, terms and basic assumptions of modernity and tries to dissolve or to overcome them in a reflective way. The advocates of postmodernism criticize the modernity's striving for innovation as merely habitual and automated.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1917-2003	Leslie Fiedler	Introduced the term postmodernism to literary studies
1925-1995	Gilles Deleuze	The world as a nexus of virtualities
1924-1998	Jean-François Lyotard	Communication as a game with certain rules Liberalism as a system of discourses condemned to cooperation
1929-2007	Jean Baudrillard	Anti-media theory Seduction of the consumer
1933-2004	Susan Sunday	socially critical art philosopher
1937-2015	André Glucksmann	Discourse about the war
1930-2019	Michel Serres	A communication theory is developed based on Claude E. Shannon's information model and using cybernetic approaches The contract of nature establishes a philosophical ecology or a new relationship with nature
* 1942	Giorgio Agamben	By reacting to its opponents, society threatens to destroy its own democratic foundations
* 1947	Peter Sloterdijk	Cultural critic and essayist Existentialism, Posthumanism, Neo-Netscheanism Critique of Cynical Reason Eurotaoism - Critique of Political Kinetics Retelling of human history in the spheres trilogy Rules for the human park You have to change your life
* 1952	Francis Fukuyama	The end of the story
Feminist Philosophy It describes various approaches, mostly represented by women, in the philosophy of the 20th century and contemporary philosophy , which deal with questions about the constructions of the natural and socio-cultural differences between the sexes in history and the present and their effects on philosophy , art , and science as well as the situation of women in a male-dominated world. Fundamental here is the investigation of the historical-philosophical concepts of “femininity” and “masculinity”.
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1908-1986	Simone de Beauvoir	The opposite sex , existentialism
* 1930	Luce Irigaray	Psychoanalyst (The Mirror of the Opposite Sex)
* 1935	Sandra Harding	Feminist philosophy of science
* 1941	Julia Kristeva	Post-structuralist
* 1944	Donna Haraway	Natural science historian, deals with questions of power and pleasure
* 1956	Judith Butler	deconstructivist feminism
New realism The new realism is a twenty-first century philosophical school with roots in the twentieth century. She shares significant arguments from speculative realism and object-oriented ontology
* 1949	Slavoj Žižek	Occupation with Jacques Lacan Distances himself from being classified in post-structuralism
* 1980	Markus Gabriel	Field of meaning ontology - everything only exists because it appears in a field of meaning , of which there are in turn an unlimited number. compare with naive realism Criticism of Immanuel Kant's considerations on knowledge, for example the thing in itself . There is no such thing as a comprehensive world formula - in the sense that everything is related to everything else.
African philosophy
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
* 1931	John Mbiti	Anglican priest and religious philosopher Representative of ethnophilosophy
* 1931	Kwasi Wiredu	"Conceptual decolonialization" Consensus ethics
* 1942	Paulin J. Hountondji	There is no comprehensible, unchangeable, collective system of thought for all Africans
1944-1995	Henry Odera Oruka	Project of the "Sage-Philosophy" (philosophy of wisdom) "Parental Earth Ethics"
* 1954	Anthony Appiah	Philosophy of Cosmopolitanism ( Ghana )
Indian philosophy
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1861-1941	Rabindranath Thakur	Nobel Prize in Literature 1913 Modernizer of Bengali literature and art Cultural and social reformers
1863-1902	Vivekananda	was the first Hindu to speak before the World Parliament of Religions Further development of the philosophy of Vedanta
1869-1948	Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi	political and spiritual leader of the Indian independence movement Concept of nonviolent resistance
1872-1950	Aurobindo Ghose	Hindu mystic and Indian nationalist Combination of humanistic education with spiritual wisdom teachings Integral yoga , evolution of consciousness, superman
1877-1947	Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy	Philosophy of Indian Art Metaphysician and traditionalist
1879-1950	Ramana Maharshi	guru Representative of the Advaita- Vedanta Atma Vichara
1888-1975	Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan	First Vice President and Second President of India Religious philosopher and pioneer of Neohinduism
1889-1950	Sahajanand Saraswati	Intellectual and social reformer Linguist, sociologist, historian Politician, nationalist and Marxist
1893-1963	Rahul Sankrityayan	Linguist, indologist, sociologist, historian Father of Indian travel literature Nationalist and Marxist
1895-1986	Jiddu Krishnamurti	Theosophist mental freedom through meditation
1918-2008	Maharishi Mahesh Yogi	Vedic philosophy Transcendental meditation
1931-1990	Osho	Founder of the Neo-Sannyas movement
Chinese philosophy
period	philosopher	philosophy	General story
1866-1925	Sun Yat-sen	Chinese revolutionary leader and statesman Founder of the Kuomintang and first Provisional President of the Republic of China political philosophy of the Three Principles of the People (inspired by American progressivism )
1873-1929	Liang Qichao	Journalist, poet and novelist modern historiography Studied the philosophers of the Western Enlightenment Advocate for the modernization of China and a constitutional monarchy
1885-1968	Xiong Shili	involved in the Xinhai Revolution , which the Qing Dynasty ended new Confucianism
1886-1973	Zhang Dongsun	studied Kant and Bergson Advocate of the philosophy of Bertrand Russell Chinese liberal and critic of Marxism Representative of the original Chinese Democratic League
1891-1962	Hu Shi	Co-founder of the literary revolution and "father" of the intellectual renaissance in China Main exponent of early Chinese liberalism Proponent of the pragmatism of John Dewey Interpretation of classical Chinese philosophers as a legacy of scientific method without legendary mysticism
1895-1984	Jin Yuelin	modern logic
1895-1990	Feng Youlan	History of Chinese Philosophy rationalistic neo-Confucian metaphysics
1909-1988	Tang Junyi	new Confucianism influenced by Plato and Hegel
1899-1977	Thomé H. Fang	Comparison and fusion of ancient Greek, occidental and Chinese philosophy History of Buddhism new Confucianism, incorporating Daoist ideas
1909-1995	Mou Zongsan	new Confucianism Chinese traditionalism translated Kant's three reviews into Chinese
1926-2002	Wang Ruoshui	first champion of Maoism later a representative of Marxist humanism and Chinese liberalism
* 1940	Do Wei-ming	Confucian ethics

See also

• Portal: philosophy
• Category: philosopher

literature

• General literature on the history of philosophy
• Johannes Hirschberger: History of Philosophy. 2 vol., Herder, 14th edition, Freiburg i. Br. 1991, ISBN 3-451-22408-9 .
• Wolfgang Röd: History of Philosophy. 14 vols., Beck, Munich 1986-2004.
• Fritz Schultze: Family Tree of Philosophy . 2., reworked. and probably edition, Haacke, Leipzig 1899.
• Franz Schupp: History of Philosophy at a Glance. 3 volumes, Meiner, Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-7873-1704-X .